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L.  L.  LAXGSTROTH  at  70. 


LANGSTROTH 


HIVE  &  HONEY  BEE 


Revised  by  DADANT 


Twentieth    Edition 


PUBLISHED    BY 

DADANT  &  SONS 

Hamilton.  Hancock  County.  Illinois.  U.  S.  A 

1919 


COPYRIGHTED   1888  BY 

CHAS.  DADANT  &  SON 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 

COPYRIGHTED    1919   BV 

C.  p.  DADANT 


^  19701 


Plate  2. 


L:  L.  LANGSTROTH  at  80. 


BIOGRAPHY  OF  L.   L.   LANGSTROTH 


Lorenzo  Lorrain  Langstroth,  the  "father  of  American 
Apiculture/'  was  bom  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  December 
25,  1810.  He  early  showed  unusual  interest  in  insect  life.  His 
parents  were  intelligent  and  in  comfortable  circumstances, 
but  they  Avere  not  pleased  to  see  him  "waste  so  much  time"  in 
digging  holes  in  the  gravel  walks,  filling  them  with  crumbs  of 
bread  and  dead  flies,  to  watch  the  curious  habits  of  the  ants. 
No  books  of  any  kind  on  natural  history  were  put  into  his 
hands,  but,  on  the  contrary,  much  was  said  to  discourage  his 
"strange  notions.''  Still  he  persisted  in  his  obsen-ations,  and 
gave  to  them  much  of  the  time  that  his  playmates  spent  in 
sport. 

In  1827,  he  entered  Yale  College,  graduating  in  1831.  His 
father's  means  having  failed,  he  supported  himself  by  teach- 
•ing,  while  pursuing  his  theological  studies.  After  serving  as 
mathematical  tutor  in  Yale  College  for  nearly  two  years,  he 
was  ordained  Pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  in  Andover, 
Massachusetts,  in  May,  1836,  and  was  married  in  August  of 
that  year  to  Miss  A.  M.  Tucker  of  New  Haven. 

Strange  to  say,  notwithstanding  his  passion  in  early  life 
for  studying  the  habits  of  insects,  he  took  no  interest  in  such 
pursuits  during  his  college  life.  In  1837,  the  sight  of  a  glass 
vessel  filled  with  beautiful  comb  honey,  on  the  table  of  a 
friend,  led  him  to  visit  the  attic  where  the  bees  were  kept. 
This  revived  all  his  enthusiasm,  and  before  he  went  home  he 
purchased  two  colonies  of  bees  in  old  box  hives.      The  only  lit- 

iii 


IV  BIOGRAPHY   OF   L.   L.   LAXGSTROTH. 

erai-j'  knowledge  which  he  then  had  of  bee-culture  was  gleaned 
from  the  Latin  writings  of  Virgil,  and  from  a  modem  writer, 
"who  was  somewhat  skeptical  as  to  the  existence  of  a  queen- 
heer 

In  1839,  Mr.  Langstroth  removed  to  Greenfield,  Massachu- 
setts. His  health  was  much  impaired,  and  he  had  resigned  his 
pastorate.  Increasing  very  gradually  the  number  of  his  colo- 
nies, he  sought  information  on  all  sides.  The  "Letters  of 
Huber"  and  the  work  of  Dr.  Bevan  on  the  honey  bee  (London, 
1838),  fell  into  his  hands  and  gave  him  an  introduction  to  the 
vast  literature  of  bee-keej^ing. 

In  1848,  having  removed  to  Philadelphia,  Mr.  Langstroth, 
with  the  help  of  his  wife,  began  to  experiment  with  hives  of 
different  forms,  but  made  no  special  improvements  in  them 
until  1851,  when  he  devised  the  movable  frame  hive,  used  at 
the  present  da}'  in  preference  to  all  others.  This  is  recorded 
in  his  journal,  under  the  date  of  October  30,  1851,  with  the 
following  remarks:  "The  use  of  these  frames  will,  I  am  per- 
suaded, give  a  new  impetus  to  the  easy  and  profitable  manage.- 
ment  of  bees." 

This  invention,  which  gave  him  perfect  control  over  all 
the  combs  of  the  hive,  enabled  him  afterwards  to  make  many 
remarks  and  incidental  discoveries,  the  most  of  which  he  re- 
corded in  his  book,  on  the  habits  and  the  natural  history  of 
the  honey-bee.  The  first  edition  of  the  work  was  published  m 
1852,  and  in  its  preparation  he  was  greatly  assisted  hy  his  ac- 
complished wife.  A  revised  edition  was  published  in  1857, 
another  in  1859,  and  large  editions,  without  further  revisions, 
were  published  until  1889,  when  the  Dadants  undertook  the 
first  re-writing  of  the  book. 

In  January,  1852,  Mr.  Langstroth  applied  for  a  patent  on 


Plate  3. 


CHARLES  DADANT  at  70. 


HIOGR.APHY    OF   L.    L.    LANGSTROTH.  V 

his  invention.  This  was  granted  him;  but  he  was  deprived 
of  all  the  profits  of  this  valuable  discovery,  by  infringements 
and  subsequent  law-suits,  which  impoverished  him  and  gave 
him  trouble  for  years;  though  no  doubt  remains  now  in  the 
mind  of  any  one,  as  to  the  originality  and  priority  of  his 
discoveries. 

From  the  veiy  beginning,  his  hive  was  adopted  by  such  men 
as  Quinby,  Grimm  and  others,  while  the  inventions  of  Mmin 
and  Debeauvoys  are  now  buried  in  oblivion. 

Removing  to  Oxford,  Ohio,  in  1858,  Mr.  Langstroth,  with 
the  help  of  his  son,  engaged  m  the  propagation  of  the  Italian 
bee.  From  his  large  apiary  he  sold  in  one  season  $2,000  worth 
of  Italian  queens.  This  amount  looks  small  at  the  present 
stage  of  bee-keeping,  but  it  was  enormous  at  a  time  when  so 
few  people  were  interested  in  it. 

The  death  of  his  only  son,  and  repeated  attacks  of  a  serious 
head  ti'ouble,  together  with  physical  infirmities  caused  by  a 
railroad  accident,  compelled  Mr.  Langstroth  to  abandon  ex- 
tensive bee-culture  in  1874.  But  when  his  health  permitted, 
his  ideas  were  always  turned  toward  improvements  in  bee- 
culture.  On  the  19th  of  August,  1895,  he  w^rote  us,  asking 
us  to  ivy  the  feeding  of  bees  with  malted  milk,  to  induce  the 
rearing  of  brood.  He  had  also  written  to  others  on  the  same 
subject.  On  the  lJ9th  of  September  he  wrote  in  the  American 
Bee  Journal,  that,  after  comparative  experiments  he  had  found 
that  a  thirteen  comb  Langstroth  hive  gave  more  honey  than  the 
ordinary  ten  frame  hive,  thus  showing  that  his  mind  was  at  all 
times  occupied  with  bees. 

Mr.  Langstroth  died  October  6th,  1895,  at  Dayton,  Ohio, 
while  delivering  a  sermon.  He  was  nearly  eighty-five  years 
old.     His  name  is  now  "venerated"  by  American  bee-keepers. 


Vi  BlUGKAPHV  Oi"  L.  L.  LAXGSTKUTH. 

who  are  aware  of  the  s^reat  debt  due  him  by  the  fraternity. 
He  is  to  them  what  Uzierzon*  is  to  German  Apiarists,  a  master 
wiiose  teachings  will  be  retained  for  ages. 

Mr.  Langstroth  was  an  emuient  scholar.  His  bee  library 
was  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  the  world.  He  learned 
French  without  a  teacher,  simply  through  his  knowledge  of 
Latin,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  reading  the  many  valuable 
works  on  bees  in  the  French  language.  He  was  a  pleasant  and 
eloquent  speaker.  His  writings  are  praised  by  all,  and  we  can 
not  close  his  biography  better  than  by  quotmg  an  able  w:iter, 
who  called  him  the  "Huber  of  America.'' 


*  Pronounce  Tseertsone. 


Plate  4. 


CHARLEy  DADANT  at  «0. 


BIOGRAPHY   OF  CHARLES  DADANT 


Mr.  Charles  Dadant  was  born  May  22,  1817,  at  Vaux-Sous- 
Aubigny,  in  the  golden  hills  of  Burgundy,  France.  After  his 
education  in  the  College  of  Langres,  he  went  into  the  mercan- 
tile busmess  in  that  city,  but  ill-success  induced  him  to  remove 
to  America.  He  settled  in  Hamilton,  Illinois,  in  1863,  and 
found  a  profitable  occupation  in  bee-culture,  which  in  his  hands 
yielded  marvelous  results.  He  soon  became  noted  as  one  of 
the  leading  apiarists  of  the  world. 

xVfter  a  few  years  of  trial  he  made  a  trip  to  Italy,  in  1872, 
to  import  the  bees  of  that  country  to  America.  Though  at  first 
unsuccessful,  he  persisted  in  his  efforts  and  finally  achieved 
great  success.  He  was  the  first  to  lay  down  rules  for  the  safe 
transportation  of  queen  bees  across  the  sea,  which  is  now  a 
matter  of  daily  occurrence. 

Later  on,  in  partnership  with  his  son,  C.  P.  Dadant,  he  un- 
dertook the  manufacture  of  comb  foundation  which  has  been 
continued  by  the  firm,  together  with  the  management  of  sev- 
eral large  apiaries,  run  almost  exclusively  for  the  production 
of  extracted  honey. 

Although  well  versed  in  the  English  language,  which  he 
mastered  at  the  age  of  forty-six,  with  the  help  of  a  pocket 
dictionary,  Mr.  Dadant  was  never  able  to  speak  it  fluently  and 
many  of  the  readers  of  his  numerous  writings  were  astonished 
when  meeting  him  to  find  that  he  could  converse  with  difficulty. 
His  writings  were  not  confined  to  American  publications,  for 
in  1870  he  began  writing  for  European  bee-journals  and  con- 

vii 


Vlll  BIOGRAPHY    OF   CHARLES    DADAXT. 

tinned  to  do  so  until  his  methods  were  adopted,  especially  in 
Switzerland,  France,  Italy  and  Russia,  where  the  hive  which 
he  recommended  is  now  known  under  his  name.  For  twenty 
years  he  was  a  regular  contributor  to  the  Revue  Internationale 
D'Apiculture,  and,  as  a  result,  there  is  probably  not  another 
l3ee-writer  whose  name  is  so  thoroughlj-  kno^vn  the  world  over. 

31r.  Dadant  was  made  an  honorary  member  of  more  than 
twenty  bee-keepers'  associations  throughout  the  world  and  his 
death,  which  occurred  July  16,  1902,  was  lamented  by  eveiy 
bee  publication  on  both  continents. 

]Mr.  Dadant  was  a  congenial  man  and  a  philosopher.  He 
retained  his  cheerfulness  of  spirit  to  his  last  day. 

In  addition  to  his  supei-\'ision  of  the  revision  of  this  book, 
he  was  the  author  of  a  small  treatise  on  bees,  "Petit  ("ours 
d'Apiculture  I'ratique.'*  He  also  published,  in  connection  with 
his  son,  a  pamphlet  on  ''Extracted  Honey,"'  1881,  now  out  of 
print. 


PREFACE 


The  first  editions  of  the  work  of  Langstroth  were  honored 
with  the  title  of  "The  Classic  in  Bee-Culture."  The  first  re- 
v.Titten  revision  was  published  in  1889,  and  this  was  so  well 
received  in  the  bee-keeping  world  that  Mr.  Charles  Dadant 
translated  it  into  the  French  language.  With  the  help  of 
Edouard  Bertrand,  it  was  published  at  Geneva.  A  little  later 
a  Russian  edition  was  published — by  Kandratieff,  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg— which  has  caused  a  revolution  in  bee-culture  in  Run- 
sia.  A  Spanish  edition  is  published  in  Barcelona  by  Pons  Fab- 
regues. 

Mr.  Charles  Dadant  died  in  1902,  ^Meantime  progress  has 
continued  and  we  again  have  to  brin^  this  classic  work  for- 
ward by  additions  and  a  few  corrections. 

In  this  edition  we  have  aimed  to  preserve  the  first  experi- 
ments and  quotations  made,  whene^-er  they  have  proven  cor- 
rect. We  believe  in  giving  credit  to  the  first  man  who  has 
accertained  a  fact  in  natural  history  or  has  made  a  discovery. 
We  have  discarded  all  the  cuts  from  Girard,  because  it  was 
evident  that  most  of  his  anatomical  studies  were  copied  from 
Barbo  and  Clerici,  -vvithout  giving  them  credit,  and  we  have 
preferred  to  secure  permission  to  copy  the  latter^  whose  work 
has  not  yet  been  excelled.  It  was  published  in  Milan,  under 
the  title  of  "Atlante  Di  Apicoltura,"  by  A.  De  Rauschenfels, 
former  editor  of  L'Apicoltore. 

Experienced  bee-keepers  will  notice  that  we  do  not  describe 
many  new  implements.  It  is  because  we  believe  in  teaching 
beginners  to  use  only  that  which  has  been  thoroughly  tested 
and  is  unquestionably  good.  Many  new  things  'wnill  not  stand 
the  test  of  long  years  of  practice.  It  is  sufficient,  among  other 
things,  to  quote  the  metal  corners  for  frames  and  the  reversible 
hives.  Metal  corners  were  recommended  at  the  time  of  our 
first  re\'ision,  and  we  gave  them  a  mention;    they  are  now  dis- 


prefacf:. 

carded  e^en  by  their  inventor.  Reversible  hives  were  the  craze, 
and  were  praised  in  e^'er^'  way.  We  ga^'e  two  of  them  a 
mention  in  our  pages,  \\-ith  a  warning  against  their  use.  Re- 
versible hives  are  now  almost  entirely  abandoned. 

We  recommend  the  large  hives,  yet  we  know  they  are  not 
popular,  because  buyers  want  inexpensive  hives.  We  have 
bowed  before  public  wishes  and  give  descriptions  of  severrJ 
popular  hives  ^^hich  are  certainly  successful.  But  we  use 
large  hives  ourselves,  for  we  consider  them  the  best. 

In  our  preface  of  the  first  re^dsion  we  extended  our  thanks 
to  Mr.  C.  F.  Muth,  now  deceased,  and  to  jSIiss  Favard,  for 
their  help  in  our  work.  The  T\Titer  has  undertaken  this  last 
revision  alone,  but  owes  gratitude  for  sound  ad^^ce  on  many 
points  to  a  man  who  has  to  do  vdth  both  practice  and  theorj- 
and  whose  long  experience  entitles  him  to  the  consideration  of 
all  bee-keepers.  Doctor  C.  C.  Miller,  author  of  "A  Year  Among 
the  Bees"  and  "Fifty  Years  Among  the  Bees."  Dr.  Miller, 
-with  small  hives,  enlarged  at  the  proper  time  and  again  reduced 
in  the  brood  chamber  for  the  honey  crop,  has  sho^vn  what 
could  be  done  T\-ith  intelligent  and  energetic  management.  He 
is  not  only  a  successful  -vsTiter  but  a  most  extensive  producer 
of  comb  honey,  and  is  justly  entitled  to  the  name  p^'en  him 
of  the  "Nestor  of  American  Bee-Keeping." 

The  work  of  Father  Langstroth,  sustained  in  Europe  by  the 
pen  of  the  Senior  Dadant,  has  entirely  changed  European 
methods  of  bee-culture.  The  improved  hive,  based  upon  the 
Langstroth  sj'stem,  has  been  adopted  all  over  the  world,  and 
testimonials  come  to  us  from  the  most  remote  countries  showing 
that  the  methods  taught  have  proven  successful. 

The  principal  changes  in  this  edition  are  upon  the  question 
of  "Diseases,"  as  much  progress  has  lately  been  made  in  the 
knowledge  concerning  foul-brood. 

C.  P.  DADANT. 

Hamilton,  lUinois,  January,  1919. 


tME  HIVE  AN»  HONEY  BEE 


CHAPTER  I. 


PHYSIOLOGY   OF  THK   HONEY-BEE. 

1.     All  the  leading  facts  in  the  natural  history,  and  the 
breeding  of  bees,  ought  to  be  as  familiar  to  the  Apiarist,  as 
the  same  class  of  facts  in  the  rearing  of  his  domestic  ani- 
mals.    A  few  crude  and  half-digested  notions,  however  sat- 
isfactoiy  to  the  old-fashioned  bee-keeper,  will  no  longer  meet 
the  wants  of  those  who  desire  to  conduct  bee-culture  on  an 
extended  and  profitable  system.     Hence  we  have  found  it  ad- 
visable to  give  a  short  description  of  the  principal  organs  of 
this    interesting    insect    and    abridged    passages    taken    from 
various  scientific  writers  whose  works  have  thrown  an  entirely 
new  light  on  many  points  in  the  physiology  of  the  bee.     If 
the  reader  will  bear  with  us  in  this  arduous  task  he  will  find 
that  we  have  tried  to  make  the  descriptions  plain  and  simple, 
avoiding,  as  much  as  possible,  scientific  words  unintelligible 
to  many  of  us. 
/       2.     Honey-bees    are    insects    belonging    ti)    the    order    Hy- 
(     menoptera;  thus  named  from  their  four  membranous,  gauzy 
J)  wings.     They  can  flourish  only  when  associated  in  large  num- 
S    hers,  as  in  a  colony.     Alone,  a  single  bee  is  almost  as  helpless 
/     as  a  new-bom  child,  being  numbed  by  the  chill  of  a  cool  sum- 
/      mer  night. 

3.  The  habitation  provided  for  bees  is  called  a  hive.  The 
inside  of  a  bee-hive  shows  a  number  of  combs  about  half-an- 
inch  apart  and  suspended  from  its  upper  side.     These  combs 


tf^^ 


2  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

are  formed  of  hexagonal  cells  of  various  si^es.  in  v/hich  the 
bees  raise  theii*  young  and  deposit  their  stores. 

4.  In. a  family,  or  colony  of  bees,  are  found   (Plate  5)  — 
1st,  One  bee  of  peculiar  shape,  commonly  called  the  Queen, 

or  mother-bee.  She  is  the  only  perfect  female  m  the  hive, 
and  all  the  eggs  are  laid  by  her; 

2nd,  Many  thousands  of  icorker-hees,  or  incomplete  females, 
whose  office  is,  while  young,  to  take  care  of  the  brood  and 
do  the  inside  work  of  the  hive;  and  when  older,  to  go  to  the 
fields  and  gather  honey,  pollen,  water,  and  propolis  or  bee- 
glue,  for  the  needs  of  the  colony;  and 

3d,  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  some  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  large  bees,  called  Drones,  or  male-bees,  whose  sole, 
function  is  to  fertilize  the  young  queens,  or  virgin  females. 

Before  describing  the  differences  that  characterize  each  of 
these  three  kinds,  we  will  studj^  the  organs  which,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  thej'  possess  in  common,  and  which  are  most 
prominently  found  in  the  main  type,  the  worker-bee. 

General  Characteristics. 

5.  In  bees,  as  in  all  insects,  the  frame-Avork  or  skeleton 
that  supports  the  body  is  not  internal,  as  in  mammals,  but 
mostly  external.  It  is  fonned  of  a  horny  substance,  scientific- 
ally called  chitine,  and  well  described  in  the  following  (juota- 
tion  : 

6.  ''Chitine  is  capable  of  being  moulded  into  almost  every 
conceivable  shape  and  appearance.  It  forms  the  hard  back  of 
the  repulsive  cockroach,  the  beautiful  scale-like  feathers  of  the 
gaudy  butterfly,  the  delicate  membrane  which  supports  the  lace- 
wing  in  mid  air,  the  transparent  cornea  covering  the  eyes  of  all 
insects,  the  almost  impalpable  films  cast  by  the  moulting  larva?, 
and  the  black  and  yellow  rings  of  our  native  and  imported  bees., 
besides  internal  braces,  tendons,  membranes,  and  ducts  innu- 
merable. The  external  skeleton,  hard  for  the  most  part,  and 
varied  in  thickness  in  beautiful  adaptation  to  the  strain  to 
which  it  may  be  exposed,  gives  persistency  of  form  to  the  little 
wearer;  but  it  needs,  wherever  movement  is  necessarv,  to  have 


Plate  5, 


QUEEN,  DRONE  AND  WORKER. 

Magnified  and  natural  size. 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS.  3 

delicate  extensions  joining  the  edges  of  its  unyielding  plates. 
This  we  may  understand  by  examining  the  legs  of  a  lobster 
or  crab,  furnished  like  those  of  the  bee,  with  a  shelly  case, 
but  so  large  that  no  magnifying  glass  is  required.  Here  we  see 
that  the  thick  coat  is  reduced  to  a  thin  and  easily  creased  mem- 
brane,  where,  by  flexion,   one  part  is  made   to   pass   over  the 

other." 

"Again,  almost  every  part  of  the  body  is  covered  by  hairs, 
the  form,  structure,  direction,  and  position  of  which,  to  the 
very  smallest,  have  a  meaning."  (Cheshire,  *'Bees  and  Bee- 
keeping," p.  30.     London,  1887.) 

y.  Mr.  Cheshire  explains  that,  as  the  skeleton  or  frame- 
work of  the  bee  is  not  sensitive,  these  hairs  act  as  organs  of 
touch,  each  one  containing  a  nerve.  They  also  act  as  clothing 
and  aid  in  retaining  heat— 

"and  give  protection, .  as  the  stiff,  straight  hairs  of  the  eyes, 
whilst  some  act  as  brushes  for  cleaning,  others  are  thin  and 
webbed  for  holding  pollen  grains;  whilst  by  varied  modifica- 
tions, others  again  act  as  graspers,  sieves,  piercers,  or  mechan- 
ical stops  to  limit  excessive   movement." 

8.  The  three  sections  of  the  body  of  the  honey-bee  are  per- 
fectly distinct:  the  head;  the -thorax,  or  centre  of  locomotion, 
bearmg  the  wings  and  legs;  and  the,. abdomen,  containing 
the  honey-sack,  stomach,  bowels,  and  the  main  breathing  or- 
gans. 

The  princijDal  exterior  organs  of  the  head  are  the  antennae, 
the  eyes,  and  the  parts  composing  the  mouth. 

9.  The  eyes  are  five  in  number,  two  composite  eyes,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  head,  which  are  but  clusters  of  small  eyes 
or  facets,  and  three  convex  eyes,  or  ocelli,  arranged  in  a  tri- 
angle at  the  top  of  the  head. 

10..  The^ace^  of  the  composite  eyes,  thousands  in  num- 
ber, are  six-sided,  like  the  cells  of  the  honey-comb,  and  being 
directed  towards  nearly  every  point,  they  permit  the  insect  to 
see  in  a  great  number  of  directions  at  the  same  time. 

11.  In  comparing  the  eyes  of  worker,  queen  and  drone, 
Mr.  Cheshire  says: 


4  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

' '  The  worker  spends  much  of  her  time  in  the  open  air.  Ac- 
curate and  powerful  vision  are  essentials  to  the  proper  prosecu- 
tion of  her  labors,  and  here  I  found  the  compound  eye  possess- 
ing about  6,300  facets.  In  the  mother  of  this  worker  I  expected 
to  find  a  less  number,  for  queens  know  little  of  daylight.  After 
wedding  they  are  out  of  doors  but  once,  or  at  most  twice,  in 
a  year.*  This  example  verified  my  forecast,  by  showing  4,920 
facets  on  each  side  of  the  head.  A  son  of  this  mother,  much  a 
stay-at-home   also,  was  next   taken.     His  facets  were  irregular 


Fig.    1. 

THE    COMPOSITE    EYE    OF    A    WORKER-BEE    MAGNIFIED. 

(Copied  from  the    Atlante   di  Apicoltura,  microscopic  studies  of  Count 
fJaetano  BarbS,  of  Milan.) 

in  size,  those  at  the  lower  part  of  the  eye  being  much  less  than 
those  near  the  top;  but  they  reached  the  immense  number  of 
13,090  on  each  side  of  the  head.  Why  should  the  visual  ap- 
paratus of  the  drone  be  so  extraordinarily  developed  beyond 
that  of  the  worker,  whose  need  of  the  eye  seems  at  first  to  be 
much  more  pressing  than  his?'' 

•  When   going  out   with    a   swarm. 


GEXERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


This  question  Mr.  Cheshire  answers,  as  will  be  seen  fur- 
ther, in  considering  the  antennae.     (26)* 

12.  The  three  small  eyes,  ocelli^  are  thought  by  Maurice 
Girard  ("Les  Abeilles,"  Paris,  1878),  and  others,  to  have  a 
microscopic  function,  for  sight  at  short  distances.  In  the 
hive,  the  work  is  performed  in  the  dark,  and  possibly  (?) 
these  eyes  are  fitted  for  this  purpose. 


Magnified, 
the  large  eyes 


Fig.    2. 

SMALL  EYES,  OR  OCELLI  OF  THE  DRONE. 

(Copied  from  Barbo.)      The  facets  on  each  side  belong  to 


13.  Their  return  from  long  distances,  either  to  their  hive 
or  to  the  place  where  they  have  found  food,  proves  that  bees 
can  see  very  far.  Yet,  when  the  entrance  to  their  hive  has 
been  changed,  even  onlj'  a  few  inches,  they  cannot  readily  find 
it. 

Their  many  eyes  looking  in  different  directions,  enable  them 

*  The  reader  will  readily  understand  that  the  numbers  between  par- 
entheses refer  to  the  paragraphs  bearing  those  numbers.  This  is  for 
the  convenience  of  the  student. 


6  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HONEY-BEE. 

to  guide  themselves  by  the  relative  position  of  objects,  hence 
they  always  return  to  the  identical  spot  they  left. 

14.  If  we  place  a  colony  in  a  forest  where  the  rays  of 
the  sun  can  scarcely  penetrate,  the  bees,  at  their  exit  from 
the  hive,  will  flj'  several  times  around  their  new  abode,  then, 
selecting  a  small  aperture  through  the  dense  foliage,  they 
will  rise  above  the  forest,  in  quest  of  the  flowers  scattered 
in  the  fields.  And  like  children  in  a  nutting  party,  they  will 
gather  their  crop  here  and  there,  a  mile  or  more  away,  without 
fear  of  being  lost  or  unable  to  return. 

As  soon  as  their  honey-sack  is  full,  or,  if  a  threatening 
cloud  passes  before  the  sun,  they  start  for  home,  without  any 
hesitation,  and,  among  so  many  trees,  even  while  the  wind 
mingles  the  leafy  twigs,  they  find  their  way;  so  perfect  is  the 
organization  of  their  composite  eyes. 

15.  Bees  can  notice  and  remember  colors.  While  experi- 
menting on  this  faculty,  we  placed  some  honey  on  small 
pieces  of  differently  colored  paper.  A  bee  alighted  on  a 
yellow  paper,  sucked  her  load  and  returned  to  her  hive. 
While  she  was  absent,  we  moved  the  paper.  Returning,  she 
came  directly  to  the  spot,  but,  noticing  that  the  yellow  paper 
was  not  there,  she  made  several  inquiring  circles  in  the  air, 
and  then  alighted  upon  it.  According  to  Mr.  A.  J.  Cook  a 
similar  experiment  with  the  same  results,  was  made  by  Lub- 
bock.    ("Bee-keepers'  Guide,"  Lansing,  1884.) 

16.  We  usually  give  our  bees  flour,  in  shallow  boxes,  at 
the  opening  of  Spring,  before  the  pollen  appears  in  the 
flowers.  These  boxes  are  brought  in  at  night.  Eveiy  morn- 
ing they  are  put  out  again,  after  the  bees  have  commenced 
flying  and  hover  around  the  spot.  If  by  chance,  some  bits  of 
white  paper  are  scattered  about  the  place,  the  bees  ^^sit  those 
papers,  mistaking  them  for  flour,  on  account  of  the  color. 

17.  But  ''the  celebrated  Darwin  was  mistaken  in  saying 
that  the  colorless  blossoms,  which  he  names  obscure  blossoms, 
are  scarcely  visited  by  insects,  while  the  most  highly  colored 
blossoms  are  very  fondly  visited  by  bees."  (Gaston  Bonnier, 
<'LeR  Nectaires/*  Paris,  1879.) 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  7 

18.  For,  although  color  attracts  bees,  it  is  only  one  of  the 
means  used  by  nature  to  bring  them  in  contact  with  the 
flowers.  The  smell  of  honey  is,  certainly,  the  main  attraction, 
and  this  attraction  is  so  powerful,  that  frequently,  at  day- 
break in  the  summer,  the  bees  will  be  found  in  full  flight, 
gathering  the  honey  which  has  been  secreted  in  the  night,  when 
nothing,  on  the  preceding  evenmg,  could  have  predicted  such 
a  crop.  This  happens  especially  when  there  is  a  production  of 
honey-dew,  after  a  storm.    We  have  even  known  bees  to  gather 


sc    tm 


Fig.   3. 

LONGITUDINAL      SECTION      OF     DRONE      ANTENNA^      NERVE      STRUCTURES      RE- 
MOVED. 

(Magnified  20  times.     From  Cheshire.) 

A.  sc,  scape;  /f,  flagellum  ;  1,  2,  &c.,  number  of  joints;  of.  antenuary 
fossa,  or  hollow;  tr,  trachea;  m,  soft  membrane;  loh,  webbed  hairs;  Im, 
levator  muscle  ;   dm,  depressor  muscle. 

B,  small  portion  of  flagellum  (magnified  60  times);  n,  nerve;  a, 
articulation   of  jcint. 


honey  from  the  tulip  trees,  {Liriodendron  tulipifera)  on  very 
clear  moonlight  nights. 

19.  The  antennas  (fig.  3,  A,  B),  two  flexible  horns  which 
adorn  the  head  of  the  bee,  are  black,  and  composed  of  twelve 
joints,  in  the  queen  and  the  worker,  and  thirteen  in  the  drone. 
The  first  of  these  joints,  the  scape,  next  to  the  head,  is  longer 
than  the  others,  and  can  move  in  every  direction.  The  an- 
tenna is  covered  with  hairs. 


8  PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    HONEY-BEE. 

''These  hairs,  standing  above  the  general  surface,  constitute 
the  antennae  marvelous  touch  organs;  and  as  they  are  distrib- 
uted all  round  each  joint,  the  worker-bee  in  a  blossom  cup,  or 
with  its  head  thrust  into  a  cell  in  the  darkness  of  the  hive,  is, 
by  their  means,  as  able  accurately  to  determine  as  though  she- 
saw;  while  the  queen,  whose  antenna  is  made  after  the  same 
model,  can  perfectly  distinguish  the  condition  of  every  part  of 
the  cell  into  which  her  head  may  be  thrust.  The  last  joint, 
which  is  flattened  on  one  side,  near  the  end,  is  more  thickly 
studded,  and  here  the  hairs  are  uniformly  bent  towards  the  axis 
of  the  whole  organ.  No  one  could  have  watched  bees  without 
discovering  that,  by  the  antennae,  intercommunication  is  ac- 
complished; but  for  this  purpose  front  and  side  hairs  alone  are 
required;  and  the  drone,  unlike  the  queen  and  worker,  very 
suggestively,  has  no  others,  since  the  condition  of  the  cells  is  no 
part  of  his  care,  if  only  the  larder  be  well  furnished." 
(Cheshire.) 

20.  The  celebrated  Francois  Huber,  of  Geneva,  made  a 
number  of  experiments  on  the  antennae,  and  ascertained  that 
they  are  organs  of  smell  and  feeling. 

Before  citing  his  discoveries,  we  must  pay  our  tribute  of 
admiration  to  this  wonderful  man.     (Plate  6.) 

Huber,  in  early  manhood,  lost  the  use  of  his  eyes.  His 
opponents  imagined  that  to  state  this  fact  would  materially 
discredit  his  observations.  And  to  make  their  casa  still 
stronger,  they  asserted  that  his  servant,  Francis  Burnens,  by 
whose  aid  he  conducted  his  experiments,  was  only  an  ignorant 
peasant.  Now  this  so-called  "ignorant  peasant"  was  a  man  of 
strong  native  intellect,  possessing  the  mdefatigable  energy  and 
enthusiasm  indispensable  to  a  good  observer.  He  was  a  noble 
specimen  of  a  self-made  man,  and  rose  to  be  the  chief  magis- 
trate in  the  village  where  he  resided.  Huber  has  paid  a 
worthy  tribute  to  his  intelligence,  fidelity,  jDatience,  energy  and 
skill.  A  single  fact  Avill  show  the  character  of  the  man.  It 
became  necessaiy,  in  a  certain  experiment,  to  examine  sepa- 
rately all  the  bees  in  two  hives.  "Burnens  spent  eleven  days 
in  performing  this  work,  and  during  the  whole  time  he  scarcely 


Plate  6. 


FRANCOIS  HUBER. 

Author  of  the  ''Nouvelles  Observations  sur  les  AbeiUes.'''  published 
in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  1792-1814. 

This  writer  is  mentioned  pages  8,  9,  10,  14,  47,  50,  51,  54,  55,  57.  59, 

77,    84,    99,    104.    105,    110,    123,    124,    141,    180,    206, 

209,  244,   282,   300,   301,   394,  491. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  9 

allowed  himself  any  relaxation,  but  what  the  relief  of  his  eyts 
required." 

Huber's  work  on  bees  is  such  an  admirable  specimen  of  the 
inductive  system  of  reasoning,  that  it  might  well  be  studied 
as  a  model  of  the  only  way  of  investigating  nature,  so  as  to 
arrive  at  reliable  results. 

21.  Huber  was  assisted  in  his  researches,  not  only  by  Bur- 
nens,  but  by  his  own  wife,  to  whom  he  was  betrothed  before 
the  loss  of  his  sight,  and  who  nobly  persisted  in  marrying 
him,  notwithstanding  his  misfortune  and  the  strenuous  dis- 
suasions of  her  friends.  They  lived  longer  than  the  ordinary 
term  of  human  life  in  the  enjoyment  of  great  domestic  hap- 
piness, and  the  amiable  naturalist,  through  her  assiduous  at- 
tentions, scarcely  felt  the  loss  of  his  sight. 

22.  Milton  is  believed  by  many  to  have  been  a  better  poet 
in  consequence  of  his  blindness ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that 
Huber  was  a  better  Apiarist  from  the  same  cause.  His  active, 
yet  reflective  mind,  demanded  constant  employment;  and  he 
found,  in  the  study  of  the  habits  of  the  honey-bee,  full  scope 
for  his  powers.  All  the  observations  and  experiments  of  his 
faithful  assistants  being  daily  reported,  many  inquiries  and 
suggestions  were  made  by  him,  which  might  not  have  occurred 
to  him,  had  he  possessed  the  use  of  his  eyes. 

Few,  like  him,  have  such  command  of  both  time  and  money, 
as  to  be  able  to  prosecute  on  so  grand  a  scale,  for  a  series 
of  years,  the  most  costlj^  experiments.  Having  repeatedh* 
verified  his  most  important  observations,  we  take  gxeat  de- 
light in  holding  him  up  to  our  countiymen  as  the  Prince  op 
Apiarists. 

2.3.  Huber,  having  imprisoned  a  queen  in  a  wire  cage,  saw 
the  bees  pass  their  antennae  through  the  meshes  of  the  cage, 
and  turn  them  in  every  direction.  The  queen  answered  these 
tokens  of  love  by  clinging  to  the  cage  and  crossing  her  antennse 
with  theirs.  Some  bees  were  trying  to  draw  the  queen  out, 
and  several  extended  their  tongues  to  feed  her  through  the 
meshes.     Wonderful  as  the  experiment  seemed  at  that  time, 


10 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 


the  fact  is  verified  now  by  daily  occuiTeiiees  in  queen-rearins;. 
Huber  adds: 

^'How  can  wo  doubt  now  that  the  communication  between 
the  workers  and  the  queen  was  maintained  by  the  touch  of  tlie 
antennae?" 

24.  That  bees  can  hear,  either  by  their  antennje  or  some 
other  organ,  few  will  now  deny,  even  althouo-h  the  sound  of 
a  gun  near  the  hive  is  entirely  unnoticed  by  them. 

''Should  some  alien  being  watch  humanity  during  a  thun- 
der-storm, he  might  quite  similarly  decide  that  thunder  was  to 
us  inaudible.  Clap  might  follow  clap  without  securing  any  ex- 
ternal sign  of  recognition;  yet  let  a  little  child  with  tiny  voice 
but  shriek  for  help,  and  all  would  at  once  be  awakened  to 
activity.  So  with  the  bee:  sounds  appealing  to  its  instincts 
meet  with  immediate  response,  while  others  evoke  no  wasteil 
emotion."      (Cheshire.) 


c 

Fig.    4. 

PARTS  OF  SURFACE  OF  ANTENNAE. 

(Magnified  360  times.     From  Cheshire.) 

A,  portion  of  front  surface  of  one  of  the  lower  members  of  the  flag- 
ellum    (worker  or  queen),   s',   smelling  organ;   f,   feeling  hair. 

B,  portion  of  the  side  and  back  of  same  (worker),  h,  ordinary  hair; 
c',   conoid   hair;    ho    (auditory?)    hollows. 

C,  portion  cf  one   of  the  lower   members   of  flagellum    (drone). 

D,  portion  of  lower  member  of  flagellum   (back,  worker  or  queen). 

"The  sound  that  bees  produce  by  the  vibrating  of  their 
wings  is  often  the  means  of  calling  one  another.  If  you  place 
a  bee-hive  in  a  very  dark  room,  their  humming  will  draw  the 
scattered  bees  together.  In  vain  do  you  cover  the  hive,  or 
change  its  place,  the  bees  will  invariably  go  towards  the  spot 
whence  the  sound  comes."  (Collin,  "Guide  du  Proprietaire 
d'Abeilles,"  Paris,  1875.) 

25.     To  prove  that  bees  can  hear  is  easy,  buc  to  determine 


GEXERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  H 

the  location  of  the  organ  is  more  difficult.  The  small  holes 
which  were  discovered  on  the  surface  of  the  antennae,  have 
been  considered  as  organs  of  hearing  by  Lefebure  (1838), 
and  b}'  others  later.  Cheshire  has  noticed  these  small  holes 
in  the  six  or  seven  last  articulations  of  the  antennae :  holes 
which  become  more  numerous  towards  the  end  of  the  antenna, 
so  that  the  last  joint  carries  perhaps  twenty.  He,  also,  con- 
siders these  as  the  organs  of  hearing,  especially  because  they 
are  larger  in  the  drones,  who  may  need  to  disting-uish  the 
sounds  of  the  queen's  wings.*  On  this  question.  Prof.  Cook, 
in  his  "Bee-keepers'  Guide,"  says : 

"No  Apiarist  has  failed  to  notice  the  effect  of  various  sounds 
made  by  the  bees  upon  their  comrades  of  the  hive,  and  how  con- 
tagious are  the  sharp  note  of  anger,  the  low  hum  of  fear,  and 
the  pleasant  tone  of  a  swarm  as  they  commence  to  enter  their 
new  home.  Now,  whether  insects  take  note  of  these  vibra- 
tions as  we  recognize  pitch,  or  whether  they  just  distinguish 
the  tremor,  I  think  no  one  knows. ' ' 

26.  It  is  well  proven  that  bees  can  smell  with  their  an- 
tennas, and  Cheshire  carefully  describes  the  ''smell  hollows/' 
not  to  be  mistaken  for  the  "ear  holes."  wliicli  are  smaller,  but 
also  located  on  the  antennae. 

''In  the  case  of  the  worker,  the  eight  active  joints  of  the  an- 
tenna have  an  average  of  fifteen  rows,  of  twenty  smell-hollows 
each,  or  2,400  on  each  antenna.  The  queen  has  a  less  number, 
giving  about  1,600  on  each  antenna.  If  these  organs  are  olfac- 
tory, we  see  the  reason.  The  worker's  necessity  to  smell  nectar 
explains  all.  We,  perhaps,  exclaim — Can  it  be  that  these  little 
threads  we  call  antennae  can  thus  carry  thousands  of  organs 
each  requiring  its  own  nerve  end?  But  greater  surprises  await 
us,  and  I  must  admit  that  the  examinations  astonished  me 
greatly.  In  the  drone  antenna  we  have  thirteen  joints  in  all, 
of  which  nine  are  barrel-shaped  and  special,  and  these  are 
covered  completely  by  smell-hollows.  An  average  of  thirty 
rows  of  these,  seventy  in  a  row,  on  the  nine  joints  of  the  two 
antenna?,    give   the    astounding    number    of    37,800    distinct     or- 

*  The  queens  and  the  drones,  in  flight,  each  have  a  peculiar  and  eas- 
ily  distinguishable   sound. 


12 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HONEY-BEE. 


gans.  When  I  couple  this  development  with  the  ^eater  size 
of  the  eye  of  the  drone,  and  ask  what  is  his  function,  why- 
needs  he  such  a  magnificent  equipment?  and  remember  that  he 
has  not  to  scent  the  nectar  from  afar,  nor  spy  out  the  coy 
blossoms  as  they  peep  between  the  leaves,  I  feel  forced  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  pursuit  of  the  queen  renders  them  neces- 
sary."    (Cheshire.) 


Fig.  5. 

LONGITUDINAL     SECTION    THROUGH     PORTION     OF    FLAGELLUM     OF    ANTENNA 
OF    WORKER. 

(Magnified  300  times.     From  Cheshire.) 

f,  feeling  hair ;  s,  smelling  organ ;  ho,  hollow ;  c,  conoid  cr  cone- 
shaped  hair ;  hi,  hypodermal  or  under-skin  layer ;  n,7i,  nerves  in  bun- 
dles ;   a?%  articulation  ;   c',  conoid  hair,   magnified   800  times. 

27.  While  giving  these  short  quotations  and  beautiful  en- 
gravings from  Cheshire's  anatomy  of  the  bee,  we  earnestly 
advise  the  scientific  bee-student  to  procure  and  read  his  work. 
Mr.  Cheshire  shows  us  those  minute  organs  so  beautifully  and 
extensively  magnified,  that  in  reading  his  bock  we  feel  as 
though  we  were  transported  by  some  Genius  inside  of  the  body 
of  a  giant  insect,  every  detail  of  whose  organism  was  laid 
open  before  us.  However  wonderful  the  statement  made 
above,  of  the  existence  of  nearly  20,000  organs  in  such  a  small 
thing  as  the  antenna  of  a  bee,  this  fact  will  not  be  disputed. 
Those  of  our  bee-friends,  who  have  had  the  good  luck  to  meet 
the  editor  of  the  British  Bee-Journal,  Mr.  Cowan,  during  his 
trip  to  America,  in  1887,  will  long  remember  the  wonderful 
luicroseopical  studies,  and  the  microscope  which  he  brought 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS.  13 

with  him.  This  instrument,  the  most  powerful  by  far  that  we 
ever  had  seen,  gave  us  a  practical  peep  into  the  domain  of  the 
infinitesimal. 

28.  Better  than  any  other  description  of  the  smallness  of 
atoms  is  that  given  by  Fiammarion,  m  his  "Astronomie  Popu- 
laire" : 

''It  is  proven,"  he  says,  "that  an  atom  cannot  be  larger 
than  one  ten-millionth  of  a  millimeter.  It  results  from  this, 
that  the  number  of  atoms  contained  in  the  head  of  a  pin,  of  an 
ordinary  diameter,  would  not  be  less  than 

8,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. 

And  if  it  was  possible  to  count  these  atoms,  and  to  separate 
them,  at  the  rate  of  one  billion  per  second,  it  would  take  250,- 
000  years  to  number  them." 

29.  Girard  reports,  as  follows,  an  experiment  on  the  olfac- 
tory organs  of  our  little  insects : 

"While  a  bee  was  intently  occupied  sucking  honey,  we 
brought  near  her  head  a  pin  dipped  in  ether.  She  at  once 
showed  symptoms  of  a  great  anxiety;  but  an  inodorous  pin  re- 
mained entirely  unnoticed. ' ' 

30.  Whatever  be  the  location  of  their  olfactory  organs, 
they  are  miquestionably  endowed  with  a  marvelous  power  of 
detecting  the  odor  of  honey  in  flowers  or  elsewhere. 

One  day  we  discovered  that  some  bees  had  entered  our  honey- 
room,  through  the  key-hole.  We  turned  them  out,  and  stopped 
it  up.  Some  time  after,  more  bees  had  entered,  and  we  vainly 
searched  for  the  crevice  that  admitted  them.  Finally  a  feeble 
hum  caused  us  to  notice  that  they  were  coming  down  the 
chimney  to  the  fire-place,  which  was  closed  by  a  screen.  The 
wedge  which  held  this  screen  having  become  somewhat  loose, 
the  motion  of  the  screen  in  windy  weather  opened  a  hole  just 
large  enough  for  a  bee  to  crawl  through.  A  few  bees  were 
waiting  behind  the  screen,  and  as  soon  as  its  motion  allowed 
one  to  pass,  she  manifested  her  joy  by  the  humming  which 
led  to  the  discovery.     These  bees,  escaping  with  a  load,  whe^ 


14  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

the  door  was  opened,  had  become  customary  and  interested  vis- 
itors. 

31.  Every  bee-keeper  has  noticed  that  their  flight  is  guided 
by  the  scent  of  flowers,  though  they  be  a  mile  or  more  away. 
In  the  city  of  Keokuk,  situated  on  a  hill  in  a  curve  of  the 
Mississippi,  the  bees  cross  the  river,  a  mile  wide,  to  find  the 
flowers  on  the  opposite  bank. 

32.  "Not  only  do  bees  have  a  very  acute  sense  of  smell, 
but  they  add  to  this  faculty  the  remembrance  of  sensations. 
Here  is  an  example:  We  had  placed  some  honey  on  a  window. 
Bees  soon  crowded  upon  it.  Then  the  honey  was  taken  away, 
and  the  outside  shutters  were  closed  and  remained  so  the  whole 
winter.  When,  in  Spring,  the  shutters  were  opened  again,  the 
bees  came  back,  although  there  was  no  honey  on  the  window. 
No  doubt,  they  remembered  that  they  got  honey  there  before. 
So,  an  interval  of  several  months  was  not  sufficient  to  efface  the 
impression  they  had  received. — (Huber,  "Nouvelles  Observa- 
tions sur  les  Abeilles,"  Geneve,  1814.) 

33.  It  is  well  known,  also,  that  bees  wintered  in  cellars 
(H46)  remember  their  previous  location  when  taken  out  in 
the  Spring. 

If  food  is  given  to  a  colony,  at  the  same  hour,  and  in  the 
same  spot,  for  two  days  in  succession,  they  will  expect  it  the 
tliird  day,  at  the  same  time  and  place. 

34.  "When  one  of  her  antennae  is  cut  off,  no  change  takes 
place  in  the  behavior  of  the  queen.  If  you  cut  both  antennae 
near  the  head,  this  mother,  formerly  held  in  such  high  consid- 
eration by  her  people,  loses  all  her  influence,  and  even  the 
maternal  instinct  disappears.  Instead  of  laying  her  eggs  in  the 
cells,  she   drops  them  here  and  there." — (Huber.) 

The  experiments  made  by  Huber  on  workers  and  drones, 
in  regard  to  the  loss  of  the  antennae,  are  equally  conclusive. 
The  workers,  deprived  of  their  antennae,  returned  to  the  hive, 
Avhere  they  remained  inactive  and  soon  deserted  it  forever, 
light  being  the  only  thing  which  seemed  to  have  any  attraction 
for  them. 

In   the  same  way,  drones,  depnved  of  their  antennae,  de- 


GENERAL    CHAKACTERISTICS.  15 

seited  the  observatory  hive,  as  soou  as  the  light  was  excluded 
from  it,  although  it  was  late  in  the  afternoon,  and  no  drones 
were  flying  out.  Their  exit  was  attributed  to  the  loss  of  this 
organ,  which  helps  to  dii'ect  them  in  darkness, 

35.  The  inference  is  obvious,  that  a  bee  dejD rived  of  her 
antennas  loses  the  use  of  her  intellect. 

' '  If  you  deprive  a  bird,  a  pigeon,  for  instance,  of  its  cerebral 
lobe,  it  will  be  deprived  of  its  instinct,  yet  it  will  live  if  you 
stuff  it  with  food.  Furthermore,  its  brain  will  eventually  be 
renewed,  thus  bringing  back  all  the  uses  of  its  senses." — 
(Claude  Bernard,  "Science  Experimentale. ") 

Bees,  however,  cannot  live  without  their  antenn*,  and  these 
organs  would  not  grow  again,  like  the  brains  of  birds,  the 
legs  of  crawfishes,  or  the  tails  of  lizards. 

36.  Let  us  notice,  in  reference  to  the  sensorial  organs, 
that  the  brain  of  workers  is  veiy  much  larger  than  that  of 
either  the  queen  or  the  drone,  who  need  but  a  veiy  common 
instinct  to  jDerform  their  functions;  while  the  various  occupa- 
tions of  the  workers,  who  act  as  nurses,  purveyors,  sweep- 
ers, watchful  wardens,  and  directors  of  the  economy  of  the 
bee-hive,  necessitate  an  enlargement  of  faculties  very  extra- 
ordinaiy  in  so  small  an  insect. 

37.  We  cannot  leave  this  subject  Avithout  quoting  the  cele- 
brated Hollander.  Swammerdam,  as  Cheshire  does: 

'*I  cannot  refrain  from  confessing,  to  the  glory  of  the  im- 
mense, incomprehensible  Architect,  that  I  have  but  imperfectly 
described  and  represented  this  small  organ;  for  to  represent  it 
to  the  life  in  its  full  perfection,  far  exceeds  the  utmost  efforts 
of  human  knowledge. ' ' 

38.  AYe  have  now  come  to  the  most  difficult  organ  to 
describe— the  mouth  of  the  bee.  But  we  will  first  visit  the 
interior  of  the  head  and  of  the  thorax,  to  find  the  nursing  and 
salivaiy  glands,  and  explain  their  uses. 

39.  The  workers  have  three  pairs  of  glands:  two  pairs, 
different  in  form,  placed  in  the  head  (fig.  6).  and  one  larger 
pair  located  in  the  thorax  or  corselet.     The  upper  \m\\v.  which 


16 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 


resembles  a  string  of  onions,  is  absent  in  the  drones  and 
queens.  According  to  Girard,  these  upper  glands  were  dis'- 
covered  by  Meckel  in  1846.  They  are  very  large  and  dilated 
in  the  young  worker  bees,  while  they  act  as  nurses,  but  are 
slim  in  the  bees  of  a  broodless  colony.     In  the  old  bees,  that 


Fig.    6. 
SALIVARY    GLANDS    OF   THE    WORKER-BEE. 

(Magnified.  After  Barbo.)  a,  a,  glands  of  the  head;  h,  glands  of 
the  thorax.  The  two  upper  pairs  are  glands  of  the  head,  the  lower 
are  glands  of  the  thorax. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  17 

no  longer  nurse  the  brood,  they  wither  more  and  more,  till 
they  become  shrunken  and  seemingly  dried.  Hence  Maurice 
Girard,  and  others  before  him,  have  concluded  very  rationally 
that  these  upjDer  glands  produce  the  milky  food  given  to  the 
larvse,  during  the  first  days  of  their  development.  Mr.  Ches- 
hire has  confirmed  the  veiy  reasonable  theory  that  the  queen, 
during  the  time  of  egg-laying,  is  fed  by  the  workers  from 
the  secretions  of  this  gland. 


Fig.    7. 

LONGITUDINAL     SECTION    THROUGH    HEAD    OF    WORKER. 

(Magnified    14    timt^s.      From    Cheshire.) 

a,  antenna,  with  three  muscles  attached  to  mcp,  meso-cephalic  pillar ; 
cl  clypeus ;  Ibr,  labrum  or  upper  lip ;  No.  1,  upper  salivary  or  chyle 
gland  (this  gland  really  runs  in  front  of  the  meso-cephalic  pillars,  but 
here  the  latter  are  kept  in  view)  ;  o,  opening  cf  same  in  the  mouth;  oc. 
ocellus  or  simple  eye  ;  eg,  cephalic  ganglion,  or  brain  system  ;  n,  neck ; 
th,  thorax  ;  oe,  oesophagus  or  gullet ;  scl,  2,  3,  salivary  ducts  of  glands 
two  and  three ;  sv,  salivary  valve ;  ph  pharynx ;  Ih,  labium  or  lower 
lip,  with  its  parts  separated  for  display ;  mt,  mentum  or  chin ;  mo, 
mouth  ;   mx,  maxilla  ;   Ip,  labial  palpi  ;   I,  ligula  or  tongue  ;   b,  boutcn. 

40.  ''The  queen  at  certain  periods  has  the  power  of  pro- 
ducing between  2,00()  and  3,000  eggs  daily  (98).  A  careful 
calculation  shows  that  90,000  of  these  would  occupy  a  cubic 
inch  and  weigh  270  grains.  So  that  a  good  queen,  for  days  or 
even   weeks*    in    succession,   would    deposit,   every   twenty-four 


*  These  facts  have  been  demonstrated  so  repeatedly,  that  they  are 
as  well  established  as  the  most  common  laws  in  the  breeding  cf  our 
domestic  animals, 


IS  I'llVSIULOCV    OK    THE    llONEY-HKK. 

hours,  between  six  and  nine  grains  of  highly-developed  and 
extremely  rich  tissue-forming  matter.  Taking  the  lowest  esti- 
mate, she  then  yields  the  incredible  quantity  of  twice  her  own 
weight  daily,  or  more  accurately  four  times,  since  at  this  period 
more  than  half  her  weight  consists  of  eggs.  Is  not  the  reader 
ready  to  exclaim:  What  enormous  powers  of  digestion  she  must 
possess!  and  since  pollen  is  the  only  tissue-forming  food  of 
bees,  what  pellets  of  this  must  she  constantly  keep  swallowing 
and  how  large  must  be  the  amount  of  her  dejections  I  But  what 
are  the  facts?  Dissection  reveals  that  her  chyle  stomach  is 
smaller  than  that  of  the  worker,  and  that  at  the  time  of  her 
highest  efforts,  often  scarcely  a  pollen  grain  is  discoverable 
within  it,  its  contents  consisting  of  a  transparent  mass,  micro- 
scopically indistinguishable  from  the  so-called  *' royal  jelly"; 
while  the  most  jiractical  bee-men  say  that  they  never  saw  the 
queen  pass  any  dejections  at  all.  These  contradictions  are 
utterly  inexplicable^  except  upon  the  theorj^  I  propound  and 
advocate.  She  does  pass  dejections,  for  I  have  witnessed  the 
fact;   but  these  are   very  watery." — (Cheshire.) 

Thus,  according  to  Cheshire,  the  food  eaten  by  the  queen, 
during  egg-laying,  is  already  digested  and  assimilated  by  the 
bees,  for  her  use.  Her  dejections,  which  are  scanty  and  liquid, 
are  licked  up  by  the  Avorkers,  as  are  also  the  dejections  of  the 
drones,  if  not  too  abundant. 

41.  The  other  two  pairs  of  glands,  which  are  common  to 
workers,  queens,  and  drones,  evidently  produce  the  saliva. 
The  functions  of  both  must  be  the  same,  for  they  unite  in 
the  same  canal  {sd,  2,  3,  fig.  7),  terminated  by  a  valvule, 
which,  passing  though  the  mentum  or  chin  {mt) ,  opens  at  the 
base  of  the  tongue.  The  saliva  produced  by  them  is  used  for 
different  purjxjses.  It  helps  the  digestion;  it  changes  the 
chemical  condition  of  the  nectar  (246)  harvested  from  the 
flowers;  it  helps  to  knead  the  scales  of  wax  (201)  of  which 
the  combs  are  built,  and  perhaps  the  propolis  (236)  with 
which  the  hives  are  varnished.  It  is  used  also  to  dilute  the 
honey  when  too  thick,  to  moisten  the  (263)  pollen  grains,  to 
wash  the  hairs  when  daubed  with  honey,  etc. 

These  glands  vield  their  saliva  while  the  tongue  of  the  bees 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  19 

is  stretched  out;  but  the  upper  glands  (No.  1,  fig.  7),  which 
open  on  both  sides  of  the  pharynx  or  mouth  {ph),  can  yield 
their  product  only  Avhen  the  tongue  is  bent  backwards,  to  help 
feed  the  larva  (64)  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell. 

42.  The  mouth  of  the  bee  has  mandibles  or  outer  jaws, 
which  move  sidewise,  like  those  of  ants  and  other  insects, 
instead  of  up  and  down  as  in  higher  animals.  These  jaws 
are  short,  thick,  without  teeth,  and  beveled  inside  so  as  to 
form  a  hollow  when  jomed  together,  as  two  spoons  would  do. 
\Yith  them,  they  manipulate  the  wax  to  build  their  comb, 
open  the  anthers  of  flowers  to  get  the  honey,  and  seize  and 
hold,  to  drag  them  out.  robbers  or  intruders,  or  debris  of  any 
kind. 


^ 


Fig.  8.  Fig.  9.  Fig.  10.  Fig.  11. 

Head  of  honey-     Head  of  horey-     Mandible  of  honey-      Mandible  of  honey- 
hornet,  bee.  hornet.  bee. 
(Magnified.)            (Magnified.)              (Magnified.)                 (Magnified.) 

43.  Fig.  10  shows  the  jaws  of  the  Mexican  hornet  highly 
magnified.  Fig,  11  shows  the  jaw.s  of  the  honey-bee,  highly 
magnified.  Notice  the  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  two,  the 
saw-like  appearance  of  the  one,  and  the  spatula  shape  of  the 
other.  A  glance  at  these  figures  is  enough  to  convince  any 
intelligent  horticulturist  of  the  tiiith  of  Aristotle's  remark- 
made  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago— that  "bees  hurt  no 
kinds  of  sound  fruit,  but  wasps  and  hornets  are  very  destnic- 
tive  to  them." 

We  shall  give  further  evidence  concerning  the  correctness 
of  this  statement.     (871) 

4.4.  Below  the  antennas,  the  clypeus  or  shield  {cl,  fig.  7) 
projects,  which  is  prolongated  by  an  elastic  rim  called  labrum 
or  upper  lip  (Ihr).     The  pharynx  is  the  mouth  (ph),  and  the 


20  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

oesophagus    (oe)    the  gullet,  through  which  the  food  goes  into 
the  stomach. 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  canals  of  the  upper  glands 
open  on  each  side  of  the  mouth,  and  discharge  their  product 
into  it  at  will. 

45.  The  chin  or  mentum  (mt)  is  not  literally  a  part  of 
the  mouth.  It  can  move  foi-ward  and  backward,  and  supports 
several  pieces,  among  which  is  the  tongue,  or  proboscis,  or 
ligula  (/).  The  tongue  is  not  an  extension  of  the  chin,  but 
has  its  root  in  it,  and  can  onlj^  be  partly  drawn  back  into  it, 
its  extremity,  when  at  rest,  being  folded  back  under  the  chm. 

46.  There  are,  on  each  side  of  the  tongue,  the  labial  palpi 
or  feelers*  {b,  fig.  12,  and  Ip,  fig.  7),  which  are  fastened  to 
the  chin  by  hinged  joints.  They  are  composed  of  four  pieces 
each,  the  first  two  of  which  are  broad,  and  the  other  two  small 
and  thin,  and  provided  with  sensitive  hairs  of  a  very  fine 
fabric.  Outside  of  the  palpi  are  the  maxillae  (c^  fig.  12,  and 
mx^  fig.  7)  which  in  some  insects  Jiave  the  function  of  jaws, 
but  which,  m  the  bee,  only  ser\'e,  with  the  palpi,  to  enfold 
the  tongue  in  a  sort  of  tube,  formed  and  opened  at  the  will  of 
the  insect,  and  which,  by  a  certain  muscular  motion,  as  also 
by  the  ability  of  the  tongue  to  move  up  and  down  in  this 
tube,  force  the  food  up  into  the  mouth. 

47.  The  tongue  is  covered  Avitli  hairs,  which  are  of  graded 
sizes,  so  that  those  nearest  the  tip  or  bouton  are  thin  and 
flexible.  It— the  tongue— is  grooved  like  a  trough,  the  edges 
of  which  can  also  unite  to  form  a  tube,  with  perfect  joints. 
It  is  easily  understood  that  if  the  tongue  were  a  tube,  the 
pollen  grains  when  conveyed  through  it  would  obstruct  it, 
especially  when  daubed  with  veiy  thick  honey. 

48.  "A  most  beautiful  adaptation  here  becomes  evident. 
Nectar  gathered  from  blossoms  needs  conversion  into  honey. 
Its  cane  sugar  must  be  changed  into  grape  sugar,  and  this  is 
accomplished  by  the  admixture  of  the  salivary  secretions  of 
Systems  Xos.  2  and  3  (sd,  2,  3,  fig.  7),  either  one  or  both.  The 
tongue  is  drawn  into  the  mentum  by  the  shortening  of  the  re- 
Organs  of  taste   according  to   Leydig   and   Jobert. 


Plate  7. 


COUNT  GAETAXO  BARBO. 

Author  of  the  Microscopic  Studies,  shown  in  figs.  1,  2,  6,  12,   15,  16,   17, 
18,    20,    23,   26,    28,    33,    37,    38,    39,   44. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


21 


tractor  linguaB  muscle,  which,  as  it  contracts,  diminishes  the 
space  above  the  salivary  valve,  and  so  pumps  out  the  saliva, 
which  mixes  with  the  nectar  as  it  rises,  by  methods  we  now 


Fig,  12. 

TOXGUE    AXl)    APPENDAGES. 

(Magnified.     After  Barbo.) 

a,  tongue ;    b,   labial   palpi ;   c,  maxilla. 

understand.      Bees,  it  has   often  been   observed,  feed   on   thick 

syrup   slowly;  the  reason  is  simple.     The  thick  syrup  will  not 

pass    readily    through    minute    passages    without    tlii lining   by   a 


22  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

fluid.  This  fluid  is  saliva,  which  is  demanded  in  larger  quanti- 
ties than  the  poor  bees  can  supply.  They  are  able,  however,  to 
yield  it  in  surprising  volume,  which  also  explains  how  it  is  that 
these  little  marvels  can  so  well  clean  themselves  from  the  sticky 
body  honey.  The  saliva  is  to  them  both  soap  and  water,  and 
the  tongue  and  surrounding  parts,  after  any  amount  of  daub- 
ing, will  soon  shine  with  the  lustre  of  a  mirror." — (Cheshire.) 

49.  The  length  of  the  tongue  of  the  honey-bee  is  of  great 
importance  to  bee-keepers.  Some  flowers,  such  as  red  clover, 
have  a  corolla  so  deep,  that  few  bees  are  able  to  gather  the 
houej^  produced  in  them.  Therefore,  one  of  the  chief  aims  of 
progressive  bee-keepers,  should  be  to  raise  bees  with  longer 
tongues.  This  can  undoubtedly  be  done  sooner  or  later,  by 
careful  selection,  in  the  same  way  that  all  our  domestic  plants 
and  animals  have  been  improved  in  the  past.  For  this,  patience 
and  time  are  requii-ed. 

50.  The  thorax  is  the  intermediate  part  of  the  body.  It 
is  also  called  "corselet."  It  is  formed  of  three  rings  soldered 
into  one.  Each  of  the  three  rings  bears  one  pair  of  legs,  on 
its  under  side;  and  each  of  the  last  two  rings  bears  a  pair 
of  wings,  on  its  upper  side;  making  four  wings  and  six  legs, 
all  fastened  on  the  thorax. 

51.  Each  leg  is  composed  of  nine  joints  (B,  Plate  8),  the 
two  nearest  the  body  (c,  tr)  being  short.  The  next  three 
are  the  femur  (/),  tibia  {ti),  and  planta  {p)  also  called  meta- 
tarsus.    The  last  four  joints  form  the  tarsus  (0  or  foot. 

52.  The  last  joint  of  the  tarsus,  or  tip  of  the  foot,  is  pro- 
vided -with  two  claws  {an,  fig.  13),  that  cling  to  objects  or 
to  the  surfaces  on  which  the  bee  climbs.  These  claws  can  be 
folded,  somewhat  like  those  of  a  cat  (A,  fig.  13),  or  can  be 
turned  upwards  (B,  fig.  13)  when  the  bees  are  hanging  in 
clusters.  When  they  walk  on  a  polished  surface,  like  the  pane 
of  a  window,  which  the  claws  cannot  grasp,  the  latter  are 
folded  down;  but  there  is  between  them  a  small  inibber-like 
pocket,  pulvillus  {pv,  A,  B,)  which  secretes  a  sticky,  "clammy" 
substance,  that  enables  the  bee  to  cling  to  the  smoothest  sur- 
faces.    House-flies  and  other  insects  cling  to  walls  and  win- 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


25 


dows  by  the  same  process.  It  was  fonnerly  asserted  that 
insects  cling  to  the  smooth  surfaces  by  air  suction,  but  the 
above  explanation  is  correct,  and  you  can  actually  see  "the 
footprints  of  a  fly"  on  a  pane  of  glass,  with  the  help  of  a 
microscope,  remnants  of  the  "clammy"  substance  being  quite 
discernible.  By  this  ingenious  arrangement,  bees  can  walk 
indifferently  upon  almost  anything,  since  wherever  the  claws 
fail,  the  pulvilli  take  their  place. 

53.  "But  another  contrivance,  equally  beautiful,  remains 
to  be  noticed.  The  pul villus  is  carried  folded  in  the  middle  (as 
at  C,  fig.  13),  but  opens  out  when  applied  to  a  surface,  for  it 
has  at  its  upper  part  an  elastic  and  curved  rod  (cr)  which 
straightens  as  the  pulvillus  is  pressed  down,  C  and  D,  fig.  13, 
making  this  clear.  The  flattened-out  pulvillus  thus  holds 
strongly  while  pulled,  by  the  weight  of  the  bee,  along  the  sur- 
face, to  which  it  adheres,  but  comes  up  at  once  if  lifted  and 
rolled  off  from  its  opposite  sides,  just  as  we  should  peel  a  wet 
postage  stamp  from  its  envelope.  The  bee,  then,  is  held  se- 
curely till  it  attempts  to  lift  the  leg,  when  it  is  freed  at  once; 
and,  by  this  exquisite  yet  simple  plan,  it  can  fix  and  release 
each  foot  at  least  twenty  times  per  second." — (Cheshire.) 


Fig.  13. 

bee's     foot    in    climbing,    showing    action    of    PtXVILLUS. 

(Magnified   30    times.      From    Cheshire.) 

A,  position  of  the  foot  in  climbing  slippery  surface  or  glass ;  pv,  pul- 
villus ;   fh,  feeling  hairs  ;  ati,  anguiculus,  or  claw ;  t,  tarsal  joint. 

B,  position  of  the  foot  in  climbing  rough  surface. 

C,  section  of  pulvillus  just  touching  flat  surface  ;   cr,  curved  rod. 

D,  pulvillus  applied   to  surface. 


54.  The  legs  of  bees,  like  all  other  parts  of  their  body, 
are  covered  with  hairs  of  varied  shapes  and  sizes,  the  descrip- 
tion of  which  is  beyond  the  limits  of  this  work.    We  will  con- 


^i 


24  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

fine  ourselves  to  a  short  explanation  of  the  uses  which  have 
a  direct  bearing  upon  the  work  of  the  bee. 

The  hairs  of  the  front,  or  first,  pair  of  legs  (C,  Plate  8), 
are  especially  useful  in  cleaning  the  eyes  and  the  tongue,  and 
gathering  the  pollen  grams. 

55.  On  the  metatarsus,  the  lower  of  the  two  largest  joints 
of  these  front  legs,  is  a  rounded  notch  (E,  a,  Plate  8),  closed 
when  the  leg  is  folded,  by  a  sort  of  spur  or  velum,  (y_,  C,  E, 
H)  fastened  to  the  tibia,  or  upper  large  joint.  The  learned 
Dr.  Dubmi,  of  Milan  (UApe,  Milan,  1881),  speaks  of  it  as 
being  used  to  cleanse  the  antennae  and  the  tongue  of  the  pollen 
that  sticks  to  them.  Mr.  Cheshire  thinks  it  is  used  only  to 
cleanse  the  antennae,  from  the  fact  that  this  notch,  which  has 
teeth  like  a  comb  (F,  Plate  3),  is  found  as  well  in  the  queen 
and  the  drone  as  in  the  worker,  and  that  its  aperture  corre- 
sponds exactly  to  the  different  sizes  of  the  antennae  of  each 
sex.     (H,  Plate  8.) 

56.  The  second  pair  of  legs  have  no  notch,  but  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  tibia  bears  a  spur  (D,  s,  Plate  8)  or  spine, 
which  is  used  in  loosening  the  pellets  of  pollen,  brought  to 
the  hive  on  the  tibias  of  the  posterior  legs  (Plate  S).  This 
spur  also  helps  in  cleaning  the  wings. 

57.  The  posterior  or  hind  legs  are  veiy  remarkable,  in  sev- 
eral respects.  Between  the  tibia  and  the  metatarsus  (B,  wp, 
Plate  8)  they  have  an  articulation,  whose  parts  close  like 
pincers,  and  which  serves  to  loosen  from  the  abdomen  the 
scales  of  wax  to  be  mentioned  further  on  (201).  As  neither 
the  queen  nor  the  drone  produces  wax.  tliey  are  destitute  of 
this  implement. 

58.  *'But  the  chief  interest  centers  on  the  two  joints  last 
mentioned  (ti,  p,  A,  B,  Plate  8),  as  a  device  for  carrying  the 
pollen  of  the  blossom  home  to  the  hive.  The  metatarsus  is  en- 
larged into  a  sub-quadrangular  form,  constituting  a  flattish 
plate,  slightly  convex  on  both  surfaces.  The  outer  face  (p,  A, 
Plate  8)  is  not  remarkable,  but  the  one  next  the  body  (p,  B)  is 
furnished  with  stiff  combs,  the  teeth  of  which  are  horny, 
straight    spines,   set    closely,   and   arranged   in   transverse    rows 


l^TE   8. 


LEGS  OF  WORKER-BEE. 
(Magnified  10  times.  From  Cheshire.) 
A  third  right  leg,  side  from  the  body.  ti.  tibia,  showing  pollen 
basket;  p,  planta  or  metatarsus;  t,  tarsus.  B,  third  right  leg,  side 
next  the  body,  c,  coxa  ;  tr,  trochanter ;  icp,  pincers.  C,  front  right 
leg  V  velum ;  &.  brush  ;  eh,  eye-brush.  D,  second  right  leg.  f), 
brush.  '  E,  joint  of  first  leg,  more  enlarged.  v,  velum ;  a,  antenna 
comb  •  ft,  brush.  F,  teeth  of  antenna  comb,  magnified  200  times.  Cx, 
cross-section  of  tibia  through  pollen-basket,  n,  nerve  ;  h,  holding  hairs  ; 
fa,  farina  or  pollen.  H,  antenna  in  process  of  cleaning,  v,  velum  ;  s, 
scraping  edge ;  a,  autenaa  ;  h  section  of  U$  ;  c,  aQt«Qnft  oomb. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  25 

across  the  joint,  a  little  projecting  above  its  plane,  and  the 
tips  of  one  comb  slightly  overlapping  the  basis  of  the  next. 
Their  colour  is  reddish-brown;  and  entangled  in  the  combs,  we 
almost  invariably  discover  pollen  granules,  which  have  been 
at  first  picked  up  by  the  thoracic  hairs,  but  combed  out  by  the 
constant  play  of  the  legs  over  the  breast — in  which  work,  the 
second  pair,  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  third,  per- 
forms an  important  part." 

59.  ''So  soon  as  the  bees  have  loaded  these  combs,  they 
do  not  return  to  the  hive,  but  transfer  the  pollen  to  the  hollow 
sides  of  the  tibia,  seen  at  ti,  A.  This  concavity,  corbicula,  or 
pollen  basket,  is  smooth  and  hairless,  except  at  the  edges, 
whence  spring  long,  slender,  curved  spines,  two  sets  following 
the  line  of  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  basket,  while  a  third 
bends  over  its  front.  The  concavity  fits  it  to  contain  pollen, 
while  the  marginal  hairs  greatly  increase  its  possible  load,  like 
the  sloping  stakes  which  the  farmer  places  round  the  sides  of 
his  waggon  when  he  desires  to  carry  loose  hay,  the  set  bent 
over  (see  G,  Plate  8)  accomplishing  the  purpose  of  the  cords 
by  which  he  saves  his  property  from  being  lost  on  the  road. 
But  a  difficulty  arises:  How  can  the  pollen  be  transferred  from 
the  metatarsal  comb  to  the  basket  above?  Easily;  for  it  is  the 
left  metatarsus  that  charges  the  right  basket,  and  vice  versa. 
The  legs  are  crossed,  and  the  metatarsus  naturally  scrapes. its 
comb-face  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  opposite  tibia,  in  the  direc- 
tion from  the  base  of  the  combs  towards  their  tips.  These 
upper  hairs  standing  over  wp,  B,  or  close  to  ti,  A  (which  are 
opposite  sides  of  the  same  joint),  are  nearly  straight,  and  pass 
between  the  comb  teeth.  The  pollen,  as  removed,  is  caught  by 
the  bent-over  hairs,  and  secured.  Each  scrap  adds  to  the  mass, 
until  the  face  of  the  joint  is  more  than  covered,  and  the  hairs 
just  embrace  the  pellet  as  we  see  it  in  the  cross-section  at  G. 
The  worker  now  hies  homewards,  and  the  spine,  as  a  crow-bar, 
does  its  work." — (Cheshire.) 

60.  The  four  wings,  in  two  pairs,  are  supported  by  hol- 
low nervures  or  ribs,  and  have  a  great  power  of  resistance. 
In  flight,  the  small  wings  are  fastened  to  the  large  ones  by 
small  hooks  (fig.  14),  located  on  the  edge  of  their  outer 
nervure,  that  catch  in  a  fold  of  the  muer  edge  of  the  large 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HONEY-BEE. 


wings.  Thus  united,  they  present  to  the  air  a  stronger  sur- 
face and  give  the  bees  a  greater  power  of  flight.  No  doubt,  a 
single  pair  of  wings  of  the  same  surface  would  have  better 
attained  the  desired  aim,  but  their  width  would  have  annoyed 
the  bees  in  going  inside  of  the  cells,  either  to  feed  the  larvae 
or  to  deposit  supplies.  Imagine  a  blue  fly  trying,  with  its 
wide  wings,  to  go  inside  of  a  cell ! 


WI.NGo    O-S    THK    HONEY    BEK 


(Magnified.      J-rcm   Cheshire.) 


A,  anterior  wing,    under  «ide ;   p,p,   plait. 

B,  posterior  wing,  under   side ;   h,1i,  hooklets. 

C,  cross-section  of  wings  through  line,  a^h,  showing  hooklets  in  plait. 

61.  "Mr.  Gaurichon  has  noticed  that  when  the  bees  fan, 
or  ventilate  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  their  wings  are  not 
hooked  together  as  they  are  in  flight,  but  act  mdependently 
of  one  another."  (Dubini,  1881.)  A  German  entomologist, 
Landois,  states  that,  according  to  the  pitch  of  their  hum,  the 
bees'  flight  must  at  times  be  equal  to  440  vibrations  in  a  sec- 
ond, but  he  noticed  that  this  speed  could  not  be  kept  up  with- 
out fatigue.  It  is  well  known  that  the  more  rapid  the  vibra- 
tions, the  higher  the  pitch. 

62.  DiGESTixG  Apparatus.— The  honey  obtained  from  the 
blossoms,    after   mixing  with    the   saliva    (41),    and    passing 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


27 


through  the  mouth  and  the  a?sophagus,  is  conveyed  mto  the 
honey-sack. 

63.  This  organ,  located  in  the  abdomen,  is  not  larger  than 
a  veiy  small  pea,  and  so  perfectly  transparent  as  to  appear, 
when  filled,  of  the  same  color  as  its  contents;  it  is  properly 


Fig.   15. 

OIGKSTING    APPARATUS. 

(Magnified.      After  Barbd.) 

a,    tcngue ;    b,  oesophagus:    c.  honey-sack:   cl,   stomach; 
tubes;   f,  small   intestine;    (j,   large   intestine. 


raalpighiaa 


28  PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    HOXEY-BEE. 

the  tirst  stomach,  aud  is  suiTouiided  by  muscles  which  enable 
the  bee  to  compress  it,  and  empty  its  contents  through  her 
proboscis  into  the  cells.  She  can  also,  at  will,  keep  a  supply, 
to  be  digested,  at  leisure,  when  leaving  with  a  swarm  (418). 
or  while  in  the  cluster  during  the  cold  of  winter  (620),  and 
use  it  only  as  fast  as  necessai-y.  For  this  purpose,  the  honey- 
sack  is  supplied  at  its  lower  extremity,  inside,  with  a  round 
ball,  which  Burmeister  has  called  the  stomach-mouth,  and 
which  has  been  beautifully  described  by  Schiemenz  (1883). 
It  opens  by  a  complex  valve  and  connects  the  honey-sack  with 
the  digesting-stomach,  through  a  tube  or  canal,  projecting  in- 
side the  latter.  Tliis  canal  is  lined  with  hairs  pointing  down- 
ward, which  prevent  the  solid  food,  such  as  pollen  grains, 
from  returning  to  the  honey-sack.  Cheshire  affirms  that  this 
stomach-mouth,  which  protinides  into  the  honey-sack,  acts  as 
a  sort  of  sieve,  and  strains  the  honey  from  the  gi'ains  of  pollen 
floating  in  it,  appropriatmg  them  for  digestion,  and  allowing 
the  honey  to  flow  back  into  the  sack.  The  bee  could  thus,  at 
will,  "eat  or  drink  from  the  mixed  diet  she  carries." 

64.  According  to  Schonfeld,  {Illustrierte  Bienenzeitung) 
the  chyle,  or  milky  food  which  is  used  to  feed  the  yomig 
larvae,— and  which  we  have  shown  to  be,  most  probably,  the 
product  of  the  upper  pair  of  glands  (39-40),— would  be 
produced  from  the  digesting-stomach,  which  he  and  others  call 
chyle-stomach.  Although  we  are  not  competent  in  the  matter, 
we  would  remark  that  the  so-called  chyle-stomach  produces 
chyme,  or  digested  food,  from  which  the  chyle,  or  nourishing 
constituent,  is  absorbed  by  the  cell-lming  of  the  stomach  and 
of  the  intestines,  and  finally  converted  into  blood.  We  do  not 
see  how^  this  chyle  could  be  thickened  and  regurgitated  by  the 
stomach  to  be  returned  to  the  mouth. 

65.  In  mammals,  the  chyliferous  vessels  do  not  exist  in 
the  stomach,  but  in  the  intestine,  the  function  of  the  stomach 
being  only  to  digest  the  food  by  changing  it  into  chyme,  from 
which  the  chyle  is  aftel'^vards  separated,  for  the  use  of  the 
body. 

66.  Again,    in   the    mammals,   the   glands   which   produce 


GENERAL    CHAKACTERISTI'JS.  29 

milk  are  composed  of  small  clusters  of  acini,  which  take  their 
secretions  from  the  blood  and  empty  them  mto  vessels  ter- 
minating at  the  surface  of  the  breast.  The  action  of  the 
upper  gland  (39-4:0),  in  the  bee,  is  exactly  similar  to  the 
action  of  those  lacteal  glands,  and  the  fact  that  this  gland  is 
absent  in  the  queen  and  in  the  drone  is,  to  us,  positive  evidence 
that  the  chylous  or  lacteal  food  (given  the  larvae)  is  pro- 
duced by  these  glands  alone,  and  not  by  the  direct  action  of 
the  digesting-stomach. 

67.  The  food  arriving  in  the  stomach  is  mixed  with  the 
gastric  juice,  which  helps  its  transformation,  and  the  undu- 
latmg  motion  of  the  stomach  sends  it  to  its  lower  extremity, 
toward  the  intestines.  But,  before  entering  into  them,  the 
chyme  receives  the  product  of  several  glands  which  have  been 
named  Malpighian  tubes  {e,  fig.  15)  from  the  scientist  Mal- 
pighi,  who  was  the  first  to  notice  them.  A  grinding  motion 
of  the  muscles  placed  at  the  junction  of  the  stomach  with  the 
intestines,  acting  on  the  grains  of  pollen  not  yet  sufficiently 
dissolved,  prepares  them  to  yield  their  assimilable  particles  to 
the  absorbing  cells  in  the  walls  of  the  small  intestine.  Thence 
they  go  into  the  large  intestine,  from  which  the  refuse  matter 
is  discharged  by  the  worker-bee,  while  on  the  wing.  \Ye 
italicize  the  words,  because  this  fact  has  considerable  bearing 
on  the  health  of  the  bees,  when  confined  by  cold  or  other  causes, 
as  will  be  seen  further  on.     (639. ) 

68.  ^'The  nervous  system  (fig.  16)  of  the  honcy-bce,  the 
seat  of  sensation  and  of  the  understanding,  is  very  interesting. 
The  honey-bee,  more  perfect  in  organization  than  the  butterfly, 
begins  as  a  larva  deficient  in  legs,  very  much  inferior  to  the 
caterpillar  from  which  the  butterfly  proceeds.  The  drones,  al- 
though larger  than  the  workers,  especially  in  the  head,  have  a 
smaller  brain.  This  state  of  things  coincides  with  the  fact  that 
the  drones  are  not  intelligent,  while  no  one  can  refuse  gleams 
of  intelligence  to  the  worker-bees,  as  nurses  and  builders." — 
(Girard.) 

69.  The  heart,  or  organ  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
fonned  of  five  elongated  rooms,  in  the  abdomen,  is  terminated 


30 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    HONKY-HEfc:. 


ill  the  thorax,  and  in  the  head,  by  the  aorta,  which  is  not  con- 
tractible.  Each  room  of  the  heart  presents,  on  either  side,  an 
opening  for  the  returning  blood.     Tlie  bh)od.  "soaking  through 


Fig.    16. 

XFHVOfS     SYSTEM    OF    THE     HONEY    BEE. 

(Magnified.      After    Br.rb6.) 

tlie  body''  (Cheshire),  comes  in  contact  with  the  air  contained 
in  the  tracheal  ramifications,  where  it  is  arterialized,  or  in 
plainer  words,  renovated,  before  coming  back  to  the  heart. 


GEXEKAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  31 

The   bee    is    not    provided   with    any    discernible    blood  or 
lymphatic  vessels  save  the  aorta,  and  its  blood  is  colorless. 

70.     The  breathing  organ  of  the  bee  is  spread  through  its 


Fig.    17. 

TRACHEAL    BAG. 

(Magnified.      After   Barbo.) 


whole  body.  It  is  formed  of  membranous  vessels,  or  tracheae, 
whose  ramifications  spread  and  penetrate  into  the  organs,  as 
the  rootlets  of  a  plant  sink  down  into  the  soil.     Connected 


32  PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THK    HOXEY-BEE. 

with  these,  there  is,  on  each  side  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  a 
large  tracheal  bag,  (fig.  17),  variable  in  form  and  dimensions, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  air  that  it  contains.  Bees  breathe 
through  holes,  or  spiracles,  which  are  placed  on  each  side  of 
the  body,  and  open  into  the  tracheal  bags  and  tracheae. 

71.  "The  act  of  respiration  consists  in  the  alternate  dila- 
tation and  contraction  of  the  abdominal  segments.  By  filling, 
or  emptying  the  air-bags,  the  bee  can  change  her  specific  grav- 
ity. When  a  bee  is  preparing  herself  for  flight,  the  act  of 
respiration  resembles  that  of  birds,  under  similar  circum- 
stances. At  the  moment  of  expanding  her  wings,  which  is 
indeed  an  act  of  respiration,  the  spiracles  or  breathing  holes 
are  expanded,  and  the  air,  rushing  into  them,  is  extended  into 
the  whole  body,  which  by  the  expansion  of  the  air-bags,  is  en- 
larged in  bulk,  and  rendered  of  less  specific  gravity;  so  that 
when  the  spiracles  are  closed,  at  the  instant  the  insect  endeav- 
ors to  make  the  first  stroke  with,  and  raise  itself  upon,  its 
wings,  it  is  enabled  to  rise  in  the  air,  and  sustain  a  long  and 
powerful  flight,  with  but  little  muscular  exertion."  -  *  * 
' '  Newport  has  shown  that  the  development  of  heat  in  insects, 
just  as  in  vertebrates,  depends  on  the  quantity  and  activity  of 
respiration  and  the  volume  of  circulation." — (Packard,  Salem, 
1869.) 

72.  Mr.  Cheshire  notices  that  bees,  even  in  full,  vigorous 
youth  and  strength,  are  not  at  all  times  able  to  take  flight. 
The  reader  may  have  noticed  that  if  they  are  frightened,  or 
even  touched  with  the  finger,  they  will  occasionally  move  only 
by  slight  jumps.  This  temporary  inability  to  fly,  is  due  to 
the  small  quantity  of  air  that  their  tracheal  sacs  contain. 
They  were  at  rest,  their  blood  circulated  slowly,  their  body 
was  comparatively  heavy;  but  when  their  wings  were  ex- 
panded, the  tracheal  bags,  that  were  as  flat  as  ribbons,  were 
soon  filled  with  air,  and  they  were  ready  to  take  wing. 

Practical  Apiarists  well  know  that  bees  may  be  shaken  off 
the  comb,  and  gathered  up,  with  a  shovel,  w4th  a  spoon,  or 
even  with  the  hands,  to  be  weighed  or  measured  in  open  ves- 
sels like  seeds.  The  foregoing  remarks  give  the  explanation 
of  this  fact. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  33 

73.  When  the  tracheal  bags  are  filled  with  air,  bees,  owing 
to  their  peculiar  structure,  can  best  discharge  the  residue  con- 
tained in  their  intestmes. 

The  queen  is  differently  formed,  her  ovaries  occupying  part 
of  the  space  belonging  to  the  air-sacks  in  the  worker,  hence 
her  discharges,  like  those  of  the  drones  (190),  take  place  in 
the  hive.  (40.)  The  queen's  air-sacks  are  much  smaller  than 
those  of  the  worker,  hence  comes  a  difficulty  to  take  wing. 

74.  ''The  tracheous  bags  of  the  abdomen,  which  we  would 
be  tempted  to  name  abdominal  lungs,  hold  in  reserve  the  air 
needed  to  arterialize  the  blood  and  to  produce  muscular 
strength  and  heat,  in  connection  with  the  powerful  flight  of  the 
insect.  Heat  is  indispensable,  to  keep  up  the  high  temperature 
of  the  hive,  for  the  building  of  comb  and  rearing  of  brood. 
The  aerial  vesicles  increase,  by  their  resonance,  the. intensity  of 
the  humming,  and  are  used  also  like  the  valve  of  a  balloon,  to 
slacken  or  increase  the  speed  of  the  flight,  by  the  variation  of 
density,  according  to  the  quantity  or  weight,  of  the  air  that 
they  contain.  This  accumulated  air  is  also  the  means  of  pre- 
venting asphyxy,  which  the  insects  resist  a  long  time.  Lastly, 
these  air-bags  help  in  the  mating  of  the  sexes,  which  takes 
place  in  the  air;  the  swelling  of  the  vesicles  being  indispensable 
to  the  bursting  forth  of  the  male  organs." — (Girard.) 

75.  The  hum  that  is  produced  by  the  vibration  of  the 
wings  is  different  in  each  of  the  three  kinds  of  inhabitants 
of  the  hive,  and  easily  recognizable  to  a  practiced  ear.  The 
hum  of  the  drone  is  the  most  sonorous.  But  worker-bees,  when 
angry  or  frightened,  or  when  they  call  each  other,  emit  dif- 
ferent and  sharper  sounds.  On  the  production  of  these  sounds, 
bee-keepers  and  entomologists  are  far  from  being  agreed. 

''Inside  of  every  opening  of  the  aerial  tubes  is  a  valvular 
muscle,  which  helps  to  control  the  mechanism  of  respiration. 
This  can  be  opened  or  closed  at  will,  by  the  bee,  to  prevent  the 
ingress,  or  egress,  of  air.  It  is  by  this  means  that  the  air  is 
kept  in  the  large  tracheous  bags  and  decreases  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  the  insect.  The  main  resonant  organ  of  the  bee  is  placed 
in  front  of  this  stopping  muscle,  at  the  entrnnce  of  the 
trachea. 


34  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

'  *  The  humming  is  not  produced  solely  by  the  vibrating  of 
the  wings,  as  is  generally  admitted.  Chabrier,  Burmeister,  Lan- 
dois,  have  discovered  in  the  humming,  three  different  sounds: 
the  first,  catised  by  the  vibration  of  the  wings;  the  second, 
sharper,  by  the  vibration  of  the  rings  of  the  abdomen;  the 
third,  the  most  intense  and  acute,  produced  hy  a  true  vocal 
mechanism,  placed  at  the  orifices  of  the  aerial  tubes." — 
(Girard.) 

76.  The  bee-keeper  who  understands  the  language  of  bees, 
can  turn  it  to  his  advantage.     Here  are  some  examples: 

''When  something  seems  to  irritate  the  bees,  who  are  in  front 
of  a  hive,  on  the  alighting-board,  they  emit  a  short  sound, 
Z-Z-Z-,  jumping  at  the  same  time  towards  the  hive.  This  is  a 
warning.  Then  they  fly  and  examine  the  object  of  their  fears, 
remaining  sustained  by  their  wings,  near  the  suspected  object, 
and  emitting  at  the  same  time,  a  distinct  and  prolonged  sound. 
This  is  a  sign  of  great  suspicion.  If  the  object  moves  quickly, 
or  otherwise  shows  hostile  intent,  the  song  is  changed  into  a 
piercing  cry  for  help,  in  a  voice  whistling  with  anger.  They 
dash   forward  violently  and  blindly,  and  try  to  sting. 

' '  When  they  are  quiet  and  satisfied,  their  voice  is  the  hum- 
ming of  a  grave  tune;  or,  if  they  do  not  move  their  wings,  an 
allegro  murmur.  If  they  are  suddenly  caught  or  compressed, 
the  sound  is  one  of  distress.  If  a  hive  is  jarred  at  a  time  when 
all  the  bees  are  quiet,  the  mass  speedily  raise  a  hum,  which 
ceases  as  suddenly.  In  a  queenless  hive,  the  sound  is  doleful, 
lasts  longer,  and  at  times  increases  in  force.  When  bees  swarm, 
the  tune  is  clear  and  gay,  showing  manifest  happiness. ' ' — 
(CEttl-Klauss,  1836.) 

77.  The  German  pastor  Stahala  has  published  a  very  com- 
plete study  on  the  language  of  bees,  which  has  appeared  in 
some  of  the  bee-papers  of  Italy,  France  and  America,  We 
do  not  consider  it  as  altogether  accurate;  but  there  are  some 
sounds  described  that  all  bee-keepers  ought  to  study,  especially 
the  doleful  wail  of  colonies  which  have  lost  their  queen,  and 
ha\'e  no  means  of  rearing  another. 

78.  The  Stixg.— The  sting  of  a  bee,  a  terror  to  so  many, 
is  indispensable  to  lier  }>reserA'ation.     Without  it,  the  attrac- 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  35 

tion,  which  honey  presents  to  man  and  animals,  must  have 
caused  the  complete  destruction  of  this  precious  insect,  years 
ago. 

79.  This  organ  is  comjDosed,  Ist^  of  a  whitish  vesicle,  or 
poison  sack,  about  the  size  of  a  small  mustard  seed,  located 
in  the  abdomen,  in  which  the  venomous  liquid  is  stored.  This 
liquid  is  elaborated  in  two  long  canals,  similar  in  appearance 
to  the  Malpighian  tubes,  each  of  which  is  teiTainated  at  its 
upper  extremity,  by  a  small  round  bag  or  enlargement.  It 
is  similar  to  formic  acid,  although  perhaps  more  poisonous. 

80.  2ndy  In  the  last  rmg  of  the  abdomen,  and  connected 
with  the  poison  sack,  is  a  firm  and  sharp  sheath,  open  in  its 
Avhole  length,  which  supports  the  sting  proper,  and  acts 
independently  of  it.  The  bee  can  force  this  sheath  out  of  the 
abdomen,  or  draw  it  in,  at  will. 

81.  3d,  The  sting  is  composed  of  two  spears  of  a  jDolished, 
chestnut-colored,  horny  substance,  which,  supjDorted  by  the 
sheath,  make  a  very  sharp  weapon.  In  the  act  of  stinging,  the 
spears  emerge  from  the  sheath,  about  two-thirds  of  their 
length.  Between  them  and  on  each  of  them,  is  a  small  groove, 
through  which  the  liquid,  coming  from  the  poison-sack,  is 
ejected  into  the  womid. 

82.  Each  spear  of  the  sting  has  about  nine  barbs,  which 
are  turned  back  like  those  of  a  fish  hook,  and  prevent  the 
sting  from  being  easily  withdrawn.  When  the  insect  is  pre- 
pared to  stmg,  one  of  these  spears,  having  a  little  longer 
point  than  the  other,  first  darts  into  the  flesh,  and  being  fixed 
by  its  foremost  barb,  the  other  strikes  in  also,  and  they  alter- 
nately penetrate  deeper  and  deeper,  till  they  acquire  a  finn 
hold  of  the  flesh  with  their  barbed  hooks. 

''Meanwhile,  the  poison  is  forced  to  the  end  of  the  spe.irs,  by 
much  the  same  process  which  carries  the  venom  from  the  tooth 
of  a  viper  when  it  bites." — (Girard.) 

S3.  The  muscles,  though  invisible  to  the  eye,  are  yet  strong- 
enough  to  force  the  sting,  to  the  depth  of  one-twelfth  of  an 
inch,  throu£i'h  the  thick  skin  of  a  man's  hand. 


36 


PHYSIOLOGY    OB'   THE    HONEY-BEE. 


* '  The  action  of  the  sting, ' '  says  Paley,  ' '  affords  an  example 
of  the  union  of  chemistry  and  mechanism;  of  chemistry,  in  re- 
spect to  the  venom  which  can  produce  such  powerful  effects;  of 
mechanism,  as  the  sting  is  a  compound  instrument.  The  ma- 
chinery would  have  been  comparatively  useless,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  chemical  process  by  which,  in  the  insect's  body,  honey 


Fig.  18. 

THE    STING    or    THE    WORKER    BEE^    AND    ITS    APPENDAGES. 

(Magnified.     After  Barbd.) 
a,  sting ;   h,  poison-sack ;   c,c,  poison  glands ;   d,cl,  secreting  bags. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  37 

is  converted  into  poison;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  poison 
would  have  been  ineffectual,  without  an  instrument  to  wound, 
and  a  syringe  to  inject  it. 

''Upon  examining  the  edge  of  a  very  keen  razor  by  the  micro- 
scope, it  appears  as  broad  as  the  back  of  a  pretty  thick  knife, 
rough,  uneven,  and  full  of  notches  and  furrows,  and  so  far  from 
anj'thing  like  sharpness,  that  an  instrument  as  blunt  as  this 
seemed  to  be,  would  not  serve  even  to  cleave  wood.  An  ex- 
ceedingly small  needle  being  also  examined,  it  resembled  a 
rough  iron  bar  out  of  a  smith's  forge.  The  sting  of  a  bee 
viewed  through  the  same  instrument,  showed  everywhere  a  pol- 
ish amazingly  beautiful,  without  the  least  flaw,  blemish,  or  in- 
equality, and  ended  in  a  point  too  fine  to  be  discerned." 

84.  As  the  extremity  of  the  stiiig  is  barbed  like  an  arrow, 
the  bee  can  seldom  withdraw  it,  if  the  substance  into  which 
she  darts  it  is  at  all  tenacious.  A  strange  peculiarity  of  the 
sting  and  the  muscles  pertaining  to  it,  is  their  spasmodic 
action,  which  continues  quite  a  while,  even  after  the  bee  has 
torn  herself  away,  and  has  left  them  attached  to  the  wound. 
In  losing  her  sting,  she  often  parts  with  a  portion  of  her 
intestines,  and  of  necessity  soon  perishes.  AVasps  and  hornets 
are  different  from  bees  in  this  respect,  for  they  can  sting  re- 
peatedly without  endangering  their  lives. 

Although  bees  pay  so  dearly  for  the  exercise  of  their 
patriotic  instincts,  still,  in  defense  of  home  and  its  sacred 
treasures,  they 

''Deem  life  itself  to  vengeance  well  resign 'd. 
Die  in  the  wound  and  leave  their  sting  behind." 

85.  The  sting  is  not,  however,  always  lost.  When  a  bee 
prepares  to  sting,  she  usually  curves  her  abdomen  so  that  she 
can  drive  in  her  stmg  perpendicularly.  To  withdraw  it,  she 
turns  around  the  wound.  This  probably  rolls  up  its  barbs, 
so  that  it  comes  out  more  readily.  If  it  had  been  driven 
obliquely  instead  of  perpendicularly,  as  sometimes  happens, 
she  could  never  have  extracted  it  by  turning  around  the 
wound. 

86.  Sometimes,   only    the    poison-bag   and   sting   are   torn 


38  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

off,  then  she  may  live  quite  a  while  without  them,  and  strange 
to  say,  seems  to  be  more  angrj*  than  ever,  and  persists  in 
making  useless  attempts  to  sting. 

87.  If  a  hive  is  opened  during  a  Winter  day,  when  the 
weather  does  not  permit  the  bees  to  fly,  a  great  number  of 
them  raise  theii-  abdomens,  and  thrust  out  their  stings,  in  a 
threatening  manner.  A  minute  drop  of  poison  can  be  seen 
on  their  points,  some  of  which  is  occasionally  flirted  into 
eyes  of  the  Apiarist,  and  causes  severe  irritation.  The  odor 
of  this  poison  is  so  strong  and  peculiar,  that  it  is  easily  rec- 
ognized. In  waiTu  weather  it  excites  the  bees,  and  so  pro- 
vokes their  anger,  that  when  one  has  used  its  sting  in  one 
spot  on  skin  or  clothes,  others  are  inclined  to  thrust  theirs  in 
the  same  place. 

88.  The  sting,  when  accompanied  by  the  poison-sack,  may 
inflict  wounds  hours,  and  even  days,  after  it  has  been  re- 
moved, or  torn,  from  the  body  of  the  bee.  But  when  buried 
in  honey,  its  poison  is  best  preserved,  for  it  is  very  volatile, 
and  when  exposed  to  the  air,  evaporates  in  a  moment.  The 
stings  of  bees,  which,  perchance,  may  be  found  in  broken 
combs  of  honey,  often  retain  their  power,  and  we  have  known 
of  a  person's  being  stung  in  the  mouth,  by  carelessly  eating 
honey  in  Avhich  bees  had  been  buried  by  the  fall  of  the  combs. 

Mr.  J.  R.  Bledsoe,  in  the  American  Bee  Journal^  for  1S70, 
writes : 

89.  ''It  may  often  happen  that  one  or  both  of  the  chief 
parts  of  the  sting  are  left  in  the  wound,  when  the  sheath  is 
withdrawn,  but  are  rarely  perceived,  on  account  of  their  minute- 
ness; the  person  stung  congratulating  himself,  at  the  same 
time,  that  the  sting  has  been  extracted.  I  have  had  occasion 
to  prove  this  fact  repeatedly  in  my  own  person  and  in  others. 
*  *  *  The  substance  of  the  sting,  on  account  of  its  nature, 
is  readily  dissolved  by  the  fluids  of  the  body,  consequently  giv- 
ing irritation  as  a  foreign  body  for  only  a  short  time  compara- 
tively. The  sting  when  boiled  in  water  becomes  tender  and 
easily  crushed." 

For  further  particulars  concerning  the  sting,  we  will  refer 
our  readers  to  the  chapter  entitled  ''Handling  Bees."— (378.) 


Plate  9. 


F.  R.  CHESHIRE,  F.  L.  S.,  F.  R.  M.  S. 

Author  of  "  Bees  and  Bee- /keeping.'''' 

The  writer  is  mentioned  pages  2,  3,  4,  5,  7,  8,  10,  11,  12,  IG.  17.  18,  20, 

21,   22,   23,  24,   25,   26,  28,  30,   32,   39,   61,  73,  84,  94,   104.  122, 

127,    145.  352.   358,    394,   395,   472,   474,   481,   483. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  39 

90.  Before  terminating  this  comparatively  short,  but  per- 
haps, to  many  of  our  readers,  tedious  study  of  the  organs 
of  the  bee,  we  desire  to  commend  Messrs.  Girard,  Packard, 
Cook,  Schiemenz,  Dubini,  and  especially  Mr.  F.  Cheshire, 
who,  by  their  writings,  have  helped  us  in  this  part  of  our 
imdertakmg.  We  must  add  also  that  the  more  we  study  bees, 
\ne  more  persuaded  we  are  that  Mr.  Packard  was  right  when 
he  wrote: 

91.  "Besides  these  structural  characters  as  animals,  en- 
dowed with  instinct,  and  a  kind  of  reason,  differing,  perhaps, 
only  in  degree,  from  that  of  man,  these  insects  outrank  all  the 
articulates.  In  the  unusual  differentiation  of  the  individual 
into  males,  females,  and  sterile  workers,  and  a  consequent  sub- 
division of  laoor  between  them;  in  dwelling  in  large  colonies;  in 
their  habits  and  in  their  relation  to  man  as  domestic  animals, 
subservient  to  his  wants,  the  bees  possess  a  combination  of 
characters  which  are  not  found  in  any  other  sub-order  of  insects, 
and  which  rank  them  first  and  highest  in  the  insect  series." — 
("Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects.") 

92.  One  of  the  especial  peculiarities  of  the  hymenopters 
is  the  care  most  of  them  give  to  their  progeny.  We  will  show 
how  bees  nurse  their  young.  Other  insects  of  the  same  sub- 
order construct  their  nests  of  clay  or  paper,  or  burrow  in  the 
wood,  or  in  the  earth.  All  prepare  for  their  yomig  a  sufficient 
supply  of  food;  some  of  pollen  and  honey,  others  of  animal 
substance.  Several  kinds  of  wasps  provide  their  nests  with 
living  insects,  spiders,  caterpillars,  etc.,  that  they  have  pre- 
viously paralyzed,  but  without  killing  them,  by  piercing  them 
with  their  stings. 

Ants  seem  to  possess  even  a  greater  solicitude.  When  their 
nests  are  overthrown,  they  carry  their  larvas  to  some  hidden 
place  out  of  danger. 

We  have  exhibited  the  use  of  the  organs  of  bees  as  a  race. 
We  will  now  examine  the  character  of  each  of  the  three  kinds 
of  inhabitants  of  the  bee-hive. 


40  PHV81UL0(iV    OF    THE    HONEV-litE. 


The  Queen. 

Although  huuey-bees  have  attracted  the  attention  of 
naturalists  for  ages,  the  sex  of  the 
inmates  of  the  bee-hive  was,  for  a 
long-  time,  a  mystery.  The  ancient 
authors,  having  noticed  in  the  hive, 
a  bee,  larger  than  the  others,  and 
differently  shaped,  had  called  it  the 
"King  Bee." 

*'^-  ■'■^  94.     To   our   knowledge,   it   was 

nn  English  bee-keeper,  Butler;  who,  first  among  bee- writers, 
affirmed  in  1609,  that  the  King  Bee  was  really  a  queen,  and 
that  he  had  seen  her  dej^osit  eggs.  ("Feminine  Monarchy.") 
95.  This  discovery  seems  to  have  passed  unnoticed,  for 
Swammerdam,  who  ascertained  the  sex  of  bees  by  dissection, 
is  held  as  having  been  the  first  to  proclaim  the  sex  of  the 
queen-bee.  (Leyde,  1737.)  A  brief  extract  from  the  cele- 
brated Dr.  Bcerhaave's  Memoir  of  Swannnerdam,  showing 
the  ardor  of  this  naturalist,  in  his  study  of  bees,  should  put 
to  blush  the  arrogance  of  those  superficial  observers,  who  are 
too  wise  to  avail  themselves  of  the  knowledge  of  others: 

"This  treatise  on  Bees  proved  so  fatiguing  a  performance, 
that  Swammerdam  never  afterwards  recovered  even  the  appear- 
ance of  his  former  health  and  vigor.  He  was  most  continually 
engage'l  by  day  in  making  observations,  and  as  constantly  by 
night  in  recording  them  by  drawings  and  suitable  explanations. 

"His  daily  labor  began  at  six  in  the  morning,  when  the  sun 
afforded  him  light  enough  to  survey  such  minute  objects;  and 
from  that  hour  till  twelve,  he  continued  without  interruption, 
all  the  while  exposed  in  the  open  air  to  the  scorching  heat  of 
the  sun,  bareheaded,  for  fear  of  intercepting  his  sight,  and  his 
head  in  a  manner  dissolving  into  sweat  under  the  irresistible 
ardors  of  that  powerful  luminary.  And  if  ho  desisted  at  noon, 
it  was  only  because  the  strength  of  his  eyes  was  too  much  weak- 
ened by  the  extraordinary  afflux  of  light,  and  the  use  of  micro- 
scopes, to  continue  any  longer  upon  such  small  objects. 


THE    gUEEX.  41 

'*He  often  wished,  the  better  to  accomplish  his  vast,  unlim- 
ited views,  for  a  year  of  perpetual  heat  and  light  to  perfect  his 
inquiries;  with  a  polar  night,  to  reap  all  the  advantages  of 
them  by  proper  drawings  and  descriptions. ' ' 

96.  The  name  of  queen  was  then  given  to  the  mother  bee, 
although  she  in  no  way  governs,  but  seems  to  reign  like  a  be- 
loved mother  in  her  family. 

97.  She  is  the  only  perfect  female  in  the  hive,  the  laying 
of  eggs  being  her  sole  function ;  and  so  well  does  she  accom- 
plish this  duty,  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  queens  who 
lay  more  than  3,500  eggs  per  day,  for  several  weeks  in  suc- 
cession during  the  height  of  the  breeding  season.  In  our 
observing  hives  we  have  seen  them  lay  at  the  rate  of  six  eggs 
in  a  minute.  The  fecundity  of  the  female  of  the  white  ant 
is,  however,  much  greater  than  this,  being  at  the  rate  of 
sixty  eggs  a  minute;  but  her  eggs  are  simply  extruded  from 
her  body,  and  carried  by  the  workers  into  suitable  nurseries, 
while  the  queen-bee  herself  deposits  her  eggs  in  their  appro- 
priate cells. 

98.  This  number  of  3,500,  that  a  good  queen  can  lay  per 
day,  A\all  seem  exaggerated  to  many  bee-keepers,  owners  of 
small  hives.  Thej^  will  perhaps  ask  how  such  laying  can  be 
ascertained.  Nothing  is  easier.  Let  us  suppose  that  we  have 
found  a  hive,  with  1,200  scjuare  inches  of  comb  occupied  by 
brood.  As  there  are  about  55  worker-cells  to  the  square  inch 
of  comb  (217),  27  to  28  on  each  side,  we  multiply  1,200  by 
55,  and  we  have  66,000  as  the  total  number  of  cells  occupied 
at  one  time.  Now,  it  takes  about  21  days  for  the  brood  to 
develop  from  the  egg  to  the  perfect  insect,  and  we  have  3,145 
as  the  average  number  of  eggs  laid  daily  by  that  queen,  in 
21  days.  Of  course,  this  amount  is  not  absolutely  accurate, 
as  the  combs  are  not  always  entirely  filled,  but  it  ^\dll  suffice 
to  show,  within  perhaps  a  few  hundred,  the  actual  fecundity 
of  the  queen. 

Such  numbers  can  be  found  eveiy  y<?ar.  in  most  of  the 
good  colonies,  provided  that  the  limited  capacity  of  the  hive 
will  not  prevent  the  queen  from  laying  to  the  utmost  of  her 
abilitv. 


42  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE  .HONEY- BEE. 

99.  The  laying  of  the  queen  is  not  equal  at  all  seasons. 
She  lays  most  during  the  spring  and  summer  months,  pre- 
vious to  the  honey  crop  and  during  its  flow.  In  late  autumn 
and  winter  months,  she  lays  but  little. 

100.  Her  shape  is  widely  different  from  that  of  the  other 
bees.  While  she  is  not  near  so  bulky  as  a  drone,  her  body  is 
longer;  and  as  it  is  considerably  more  tapering,  or  sugar- 
loaf  in  form,  than  that  of  a  worker,  she  has  a  somewhat  wasp- 
like appearance.  Her  wings  are  much  shorter  in  proportion 
than  those  of  the  drone  or  worker;*  the  under  part  of  her 
body  is  of  a  golden  color,  and  the  upper  part  usually  darker 
than  that  of  the  other  bees.t  Her  motions  are  generally  slow 
and  matronly,  although  she  can,  when  she  pleases,  move  with 
astonishing  quickness.  No  colony  can  long  exist  without  the 
presence  of  this  all-important  insect;  but  must  as  surely 
perish,  as  the  body  without  the  spirit  must  hasten  to  in- 
evitable decay. 

101.  The  queen  is  treated  with  the  greatest  respect  and 
affection  by  the  bees.  A  circle  of  her  loving  offspring  often 
surromid  her,  testifymg  in  various  ways  their  regard;  some 
gently  embracing  her  with  their  antennae,  others  offering  her 
food  from  time  to  time,  and  all  of  them  politely  backing  out 
of  her  way,  to  give  her  a  clear  path  when  she  moves  over  the 
combs.  If  she  is  taken  from  them,  the  Avhole  colony  is  thrown 
into  a  state  of  the  most  intense  agitation  as  soon  as  they 
ascertain  their  loss;  all  the  labors  of  the  hive  are  abandoned; 
the  bees  run  wildly  over  the  combs,  and  frequently  rush  from 
the  hive  in  anxious  search  for  thfeir  beloved  mother.  If  they 
cannot  find  her,  they  return  to  their  desolate  home,  and  by 
their  sorrowful  tones  reveal  their  deep  sense  of  so  deplorable 
a  calamity.  Their  note  at  such  times,  more  especially  when 
they  first  realize  their  loss,  is  of  a  peculiarly  mournful  char- 
acter; it  sounds  somewhat  like  a  succession  of  waiiings  on 
the  minor  key,  and  can  no  more  be  mistaken  by  an  experienced 
bee-keeper,   for  their   ordinaiy  happy  hum    (76),   than   the 

''  The  wings  of  the  queen  are  in  reality  longer  than  those  of  the 
worker. 

t  This  applies  only   to  queens  of  the  black  or  ccmmon   race 


THE   QUEEN. 


43 


piteous  moanings  of  a  sick  child  could  be  confounded  by  the 
anxious  mother  with  its  joyous  crowings  when  overflowing 
with  health  and  happiness.  We  shall  give  in  this  connection, 
a  description  of  an  interesting  experiment. 

102.     A  populous  stock  was  removed,  in  the  morning,  to 
a  new  place,  and  an  empty  hive  put  upon  its  stand.     Thou- 


Fig.   20. 

HEAD    OF   QUEEN. 

(Magnified.      After   Barbo.) 

sands  of  workers  which  were  rangmg  the  fields,  or  which  left 
the  old  hive  after  its  removal,  returned  to  the  familiar  spot. 
It  was  truly  affecting  to  witness  their  grief  and  despair;  they 
flew  in  restless  circles  about  the  place  where  once  stood  their 
happy  home,  entering  the  empty  hive  continually,  and  express- 
ing in  various  ways,  their  lamentations  over  so  cruel  a  be- 
reavement. Towards  evening,  ceasing  to  take  wing,  they 
roamed  in  restless  platoons,  in  and  out  of  {he  hive,  and  over 
its  surface,  as  if  in  search  of  some  lost  treasure.     A  small 


44  J'JIVSIOLOGV    OF   THE    HOXKV-BEE. 

piece  of  brood-eonib  was  then  given  to  them,  containmg 
H'orker-eggs  and  worms.  The  effect  produced  by  its  intro- 
duction took  place  nmch  quicker  than  can  be  described.  Those 
which  first  touched  it  raistd  a  peculiar  note,  and  in  a  moment, 
the  comb  was  covered  with  a  dense  mass  of  bees;  as  they  rec- 
ognised, in  this  small  piece  of  comb,  the  means  of  deliverance, 
despair  gave  place  to  hope,  their  restless  motions  and  mourn- 
ful voices  ceased,  and  a  cheerful  hum  proclaimed  their  de- 
light. If  some  one  should  enter  a  building  filled  with  thou- 
sands of  persons  tearing  their  hair,  beating  their  breasts,  and 
by  piteous  cries,  as  well  as  frantic  gestures,  giving  vent  to 
their  despair,  and  could  by  a  single  word  cause  all  these  dem- 
onstrations of  agony  to  give  place  to  smiles  and  congratula- 
tions, the  change  w^ould  not  be  more  instantaneous  than  that 
produced  when  the  bees  received  the  brood-comb! 

The  Orientals  called  the  honey-bee  ^'Deborah;  She  thut 
speaketh."  Would  that  this  little  insect  might  speak,  in 
words  more  eloquent  than  those  of  man's  device,  to  those  who 
reject  any  of  the  doctrines  of  revealed  religion,  with  the 
assertion  that  they  are  so  improbable,  as  to  labor  under  a 
fatal  a  priori  objection.  Do  not  all  the  steps  in  the  devel- 
opment of  a  queen  from  the  worker-egg,  labor  under  the 
very  same  objection?  and  have  they  not,  for  this  reason  been 
formerly  regarded,  by  many  bee-keepers,  as  unworthy  of 
belief?  If  the  favorite  argument  of  infidels  will  not  stand 
the  test,  when  applied  to  the  wonders  of  the  bee-hive,  is  it 
entitled  to  serious  weight,  when,  by  objecting  to  religious 
truths,  they  arrogantly  take  to  task  the  Infinite  Jehovah  for 
what  He  has  been  pleased  to  do  or  to  teach?  With  no  more 
latitude  than  is  claimed  by  such  objectors,  it  were  easy  to 
prove  that  a  man  is  under  no  obligation  to  believe  any  of  the 
wonders  of  the  bee-hive,  even  although  he  is  himself  an  intelli- 
gent eye-witness  to  their  substantial  truth.* 

103.     The  process  of  rearing  queen-bees  will  now  be  par- 

♦  The  passages  referring  to  religious  subjects  have  been  nearly  all 
retained  in  the  revision,  at  Mr.  Langstroth's  request,  even  when  not 
In  accordance  with  our  views.  As  intelligent  men  are  always  tolerant, 
we  know  our  readers  will  net  object  to  them.  Mr.  Langstroth  was  a 
clergyman. 


THE    gUHKN. 


45 


tieularly  described.  Early  in  the  season,  if  a  hive  becomes 
very  populons,  and  if  the  bees  make  preparations  for  swarm- 
ing, a  number  of  royal  cells 
are  begun,  being  commonly 
constructed  upon  those  edges 
of  the  combs  which  are  not 
attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
hive.  These  cells  somewhat 
resemble  a  small  pea-nut, 
and  are  about  an  inch  deep, 
and  one-third  of  an  inch  in 
diameter:  being  very  thick, 
they  require  much  Avax  for 
their  construction.  They  are 
seldom  seen  in  a  perfect  state 
after  the  hatching  of  the 
queen,  as  the  bees  cut  them 
down  to  the  shape  of  a  small 
acorn-cup  (fig.  21.)  These 
queen-cells,  while  in  prog- 
ress, receive  a  veiy  unusual 
amount  of  attention  from  the  workers.  There  is  scarcely  a 
second  in  which  a  bee  is  not  peeping  into  them;  and  as  fast 
as  one  is  satisfied,  another  pops  hi  her  head  to  report  prog- 
ress, or  increase  the  supply  of  food.  Their  importance  to 
the  community  might  easily  be  inferred  from  their  being  the 
center  of  so  much  attraction. 

104.  While  the  other  cells  open  sideways,  the  queen-cells 
always  hang  with  their  mouth  downw'-.rds.  Some  Apiarists 
think  that  this  peculiar  position  affects,  in  some  way,  the  devel- 
opment of  the  royal  larvae;  while  others,  ha^mig  ascertained 
that  they  are  uninjured  if  placed  in  any  other  position,  con- 
sider this  deviation  as  among  the  inscrutable  mysteries  of  the 
bee-hive.  So  it  seemed  to  us  until  convinced,  by  a  more  careful 
observation,  that  they  open  downwards  simply  to  save  room. 
The  distance  between  the  parallel  ranges  of  comb  in  the  hive 
is  usually  too  small  for  the  royal  cells  to  open  sideways,  with- 
out interfering  with  the  opposite  cells.     To  economize  space, 


Fig.   21. 

QUEEN-CELLS    IN    PROGRESS. 


40 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 


the  bees  put  them  on  the  unoccupied  edges  of  the  comb,  where 
there  is  plenty  of  room  for  such  vei-y  large  cells. 

105.  The  number  of  royal  cells  in  a  hive  varies  greatly; 
sometimes  there  are  only  two  or  three,  ordinarily  not  less 
than  five;  and  occasionally,  more  than  a  dozen. 

Some  races  of  bees  have  a  disposition  to  raise  a  greater 
number  of  queen-cells  than  others.  At  the  Toronto  meet- 
ing of  the  North  American  Bee-keepers'  Association,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1883,  Mr.  D.  A.  Jones,  the  noted  Canadian  importer 
of  Syrian  and  Cyprian  bees,  and  at  that  time  publisher  of 
the  Canadian  Bee  Journal,  exhibited  a  comb  containing  about 
eighty  queen-cells,  built  by  a  colony  of  Syrian  bees  (560). 
In  1905,  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  succeeded  in  raising  one  hundred 
and  nineteen  queen  cells  on  two  combs  of  brood  in  a  colony 
of  Cyprian  bees.  (Fig.  22.)  Such  case^  are  rare  in  the  hive 
of  any  other  race. 


Fig.  22. 

'queen  cells  built  by  CYPRIAN  BEES. 

(American   Bee  Journal.) 


THE    QUEEN.  47 

106.  As  it  is  not  intended  that  the  young  queens  should 
all  be  of  the  same  age,  the  royal-cells  are  not  all  beg"un  at 
the  same  time.  It  is  not  fully  settled  how  the  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  these  cells.  In  some  few  instances,  we  have 
known  the  bees  to  transfer  the  eggs  from  common  to  queen- 
cells;  and  this  may  be  their  general  method  of  procedure. 
Mr.  Wagner  put  some  queenless  bees,  brought  from  a  dis- 
tance, mto  empty  combs  that  had  lain  for  two  years  in  his 
garret.  When  supplied  with  brood,  they  raised  their  queen 
in  this  old  comb!  Mr.  Richard  Colvin,  of  Baltimore,  and 
other  apiarian  friends,  have  communicated  to  us  instances 
almost  as  striking.  Yet,  Huber  has  proved  that  bees  do 
not  ordinarily  transport  the  eggs  of  the  queen  from  one  cell 
to  another.  We  shall  hazard  the  conjecture,  that,  in  a 
crowded  state  of  the  hive,  the  queen  deposits  her  eggs  in  cells 
on  the  edges  of  the  comb,  some  of  which  are  afterwards 
changed  by  the  workers  into  royal  cells.  Such  is  a  queen's 
instinctive  hatred  of  her  own  kind,  that  it  seems  improbable 
that  she  should  be  intrusted  with  even  the  initiatory  steps 
for  securing  a  race  of  successors. 

(For  further  particulars  concerning  the  raising  of  large 
numbers  of  queen'-cells,  see  515-530.) 

107.  The  egg  Avhich  is  destmed  to  produce  a  queen-bee 
does  not  differ  from  the  egg  intended  to  become  a  worker; 
but  the  young  queen-larvae  are  much  more  largely  supplied 
with  food  than  the  other  larvae;  so  that  they  seem  to  lie  in 
a  thick  bed  of  jelly,  a  portion  of  which  may  usually  be  found 
at  the  base  of  their  cells,  soon  after  they  have  hatched,  while 
the  food  given  to  the  worker-larvae  after  three  days,  and  for 
the  last  days  of  their  development,  is  coarser  and  more 
sparingly  given,  as  will  be  seen  farther  on. 

108.  The  effects  produced  on  the  royal  larvae  by  their 
peculiar  treatment  are  so  wonderful,  that  they  were  at  lirst 
rejected  as  idle  whims,  by  those  who  had  neither  been  eye- 
witnesses to  them,  nor  acquainted  with  the  opportmiities  en- 
joyed by  others  for  accurate  observation.  They  are  not  on(y 
contrary    to    all    common   analogies,    but    seem    marvelously 


48 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HOXEY-BEE. 


strange  and  improbable.     The  most  important  of  these  eifects 
we  shall  briefly  enumerate. 

1st.  The  peculiar  mode  in  which  the  worm  designed  for  a 
queen  is  treated  causes  it  to  arrive  at  maturity  almost  one- 
third  earlier  than  if  it  had  been  reared  a  worker.  And  yet, 
as  it  is  to  be  much  more  fully  developed,  according  to  ordi- 
jiary  analogy,  it  should  have  had  a  slower  growth. 


Fis.    2H. 
THE    STING    OF    THE    QUEEN. 

(Magnified.      After   Barbo.) 


THE    QUEEX.  4!) 

2d.  Its  organs  of  reproduction  are  completely  developed, 
so  that  it  can  fulfill  the  office  of  a  mother. 

3d.  Its  size,  shape,  and  color  are  gTeatly  changed;  its 
lower  jaws  are  shorter,  its  head  rounder,  and  its  abdomen 
without  the  receptacles  for  secreting  wax;  its  hind  legs  have 
neither  brushes  nor  baskets,  and  its  sting  is  curved  (fig.  23) 
and  one-third  longer  than  that  of  a  worker. 

4th.  Its  instincts  are  entirely  changed.  Reared  as  a 
worker,  it  would  have  thrust  out  its  sting  at  the  least  provo- 
cation; whereas  now,  it  may  be  pulled  limb  from  limb  with- 
out attempting  to  stmg.  As  a  worker,  it  would  have  treated 
a  queen  with  the  greatest  consideration;  but  now,  if  brought 
in  contact  with  another  queen,  it  seeks  to  destroy  her  as  a 
rival.  As  a  worker,  it  would  frequently  have  left  the  hive, 
either  for  labor  or  exercise;  as  a  queen,  it  never  leaves  it 
after  unpregnation,  except  to  accompany  a  new  swarm. 

5th.  The  tenu  of  its  life  is  remarkably  lengthened.  As  a 
worker,  it  would  not  have  lived  more  than  six  or  seven  months; 
as  a  queen,  it  may  live  seven  or  eight  times  as  long.  All  these 
wonders  rest  on  the  imx^regnable  basis  of  demonstration,  and 
instead  of  being  witnessed  only  by  a  select  few,  are  now, 
by  the  use  of  the  movable-comb  hive,  familiar  sights  to  any 
bee-keeper. 

109.  The  process  of  rearing  qaeens,  to  meet  some  special 
emergency,  is  even  more  wonderful  than  the  one  already 
described.  If  the  bees  have  worker-eggs,  or  worms  not 
more  than  three  days  old,  they  make  one  large  cell  out  of 
three,  by  nibbliiuv  away  the  partitions  of  two  cells  adjoining 
a  third.  Destroying  the  eggs  or  worms  in  two  of  these  cells, 
they  place  before  the  occupant  of  the  other,  the  usual  food 
of  the  young  queens;  and  by  enlarging  its  cell,  give  it  ample 
space  for  development.  As  a  security  against  failure,  they 
usually  start  a  number  of  queen-cells,  for  several  days  in 
succession. 

It  was  a  German  bee-keeper,  Schirach,  who  discovered  tha^ 
a  queen  can  be  raised  from  a  worker-egg.  ("The  New  Natural 
and  Ai-tificial  Multiplication  of  Bees,"  Bautzen,  1761.) 


50  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HONEY-BEE. 

110.  Duration  of  Development.  — The  eggs  hatch  in 
three  days  after  they  are  laid.  The  small  worm  which  is 
intended  to  produce  a  queen,  is  six  days  in  its  larval  state, 
and  seven  in  its  transformation  into  a  chrysalis  and  winged 
insect.  These  periods  are  not  absolutely  fixed;  being  of 
shorter  or  longer  duration,  according  to  the  warmth  of  the 
hive  and  the  care  given  by  the  bees.  In  from  ten  to  sixteen 
days,  m  ten  days,  if  the  lai'\'a  selected  is  about  three  days 
old;  in  sixteen,  if  newly  laid  eggs  are  selected,  they  are  in 
possession  of  a  new  queen,  in  all  respects  resembling  one 
reared  in  the  natural  way;  while  the  eggs  in  the  adjoining 
cells,  w^hich  have  been  developed  as  workers,  are  nearly  a 
week  longer  in  coming  to  maturity. 

111.  The  Virgin  Queen.— Feeble  and  pale,  in  the  first 
moments  after  her  birth,  the  young  queen,  as  soon  as  she  has 
acquired  some  streng-th,  travels  over  the  combs,  looking  for 
a  rival,  either  hatched  or  unhatched. 

112.  ''Hardly  had  ten  minutes  elapsed  after  the  young 
queen  emerged  from  her  cell,  when  she  began  to  look  for  sealed 
queen-cells.  She  rushed  furiously  upon  the  first  that  she  met, 
and,  by  dint  of  hard  work,  made  a  small  opening  in  the  end. 
We  saw  her  drawing,  with  her  mandibles,  the  silk  of  the  cocoon, 
vvhich  covered  the  inside.  But,  probably,  she  did  not  succeed 
according  to  her  wishes,  for  she  left  the  lower  end  of  the  cell, 
and  went  to  .work  on  the  upper  end,  where  she  finally  made  a 
wider  opening.  As  soon  as  this  was  sufficiently  large,  she 
turned  about,  to  push  her  abdomen  into  it.  She  made  several 
motions,  in  different  directions^  till  she  succeeded  in  striking 
her  rival  with  the  deadly  sting.  Then  she  left  the  cell;  and  the 
bees,  which  had  remained,  so  far,  perfectly  passive,  began  to 
enlarge  the  gap  which  she  had  made,  and  drew  out  the  corpse  of  a 
queen  just  out  of  her  nymphal  shell.  During  this  time,  the  vic- 
torious young  queen  rushed  to  another  queen-cell,  and  again 
made  a  large  opening,  but  she  did  not  introduce  her  abdomen 
into  it;  this  second  cell  containing  only  a  royal-pupa  not  yet 
formed.  There  is  some  probability  that,  at  this  stage  of  de- 
velopment, the  nymphs  of  queens  inspire  less  anger  to  theii 
rivals;  but  they  do  not  escape  their  doom;  for,  whenever  a 
queen-cell  has  been  prematurely  opened,  the  bees  throw  out  its 


THE    QUEEX.  51 

occupant,  whether  worm,  nymph,  or  queen.  Therefore,  as  soon 
as  the  victorious  queen  had  left  this  second  cell,  the  workers 
enlarged  the  opening  and  drew  out  the  nymph  that  it  contained. 
The  young  queen  rushed  to  a  third  cell;  but  she  was  unable  to 
open  it.  She  worked  languidly  and  seemed  tired  of  her  first 
efforts."— (Huber.) 

113.  Huber  did  not  allow  this  experiment  to  go  on  any 
further,  as  lie  wished  to  use  the  remainder  of  the  queen-cells. 
Had  he  left  these  cells  untouched,  the  bees  would  have  fin- 
ished the  work  of  destruction. 

114.  We  ha\e  noticed  repeatedly,  that  the  queen-cells 
are  always  destroyed  a  few  hours  after  the  birth  of  the  queen, 
unless  the  colony  has  determined  to  swarm.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  workers  prevent  the  newly-hatched  queen  from  ap- 
proaching the  queen-cells,  till  she  is  old  enough  and  strong 
enough  to  leave  with  the  swarm.     (443.) 

115.  Like  some  human  beings  who  cannot  have  their  own 
way,  she  is  highly  offended  w^hen  thus  repulsed,  and  utters, 
in  a  quick  succession  of  notes,  a  shrill,  angry  sound,  not 
mi  like  the  rapid  utterance  of  the  words,  "peep,  peep."  If 
held  in  the  closed  hand,  she  will  make  a  similar  noise.  To 
this  angry  note,  one  or  more  of  the  mihatched  queens,  im- 
prisoned and  nursed  in  their  cells  by  the  bees,  answer  by 
the  sound  "kooa,  kooa";  the  difference  in  their  voices  being 
due  to  the  confinement  of  the  latter  in  the  cell. 

These  sounds,  so  entirely  unlike  the  usual  steady  hum  of 
the  bees,  are  almost  infallible  indications  that  a  sv/arm  will 
soon  issue.  They  are  occasionally  so  loud  as  to  be  heard  at 
some  distance  from  the  hive. 

The  reader  will  miderstand  that  all  these  facts  relate  to  a 
hive  of  bees,  from  which  the  old  queen  has  been  previously 
and  suddenly  removed,  either  by  the  Apiarist  for  some  pur- 
pose, or  by  swarming,  or  accident. 

116.  Sometimes  tw^o  queens  batch  at  the  same  time.  We 
give  below  a  translation  of  Huber's  account  in  such  event: 

*'0n  the  loth  of  May,  1790,  two  queens  emerged  from  their 
cells,  at   about   the  same  time,  in  one   of  our  observing  hives. 


52  PHYS10L0(;V    OF    TllK    HONPn'-KKK. 

They  rushed  quickly  upon  oue  another,  apparently  in  yreat 
anger,  and  grasped  one  another's  antennae,  so  that  the  head, 
corselet  and  abdomen  of  the  one,  were  touching  the  head,  corse- 
let and  abdomen  of  the  other.  Had  they  curved  the  posterior 
extremity  of  their  bodies,  they  could  have  stung  each  other,  and 
both  would  have  perished.  But  it  seems  that  Nature  has  not 
wished  that  their  duels  should  result  in  the  death  of  both  com- 
batants, and  that  it  is  prescribed  to  queens,  while  in  this  posi- 
tion, to  flee  instantly  with  the  greatest  haste.  As  soon  as  both 
rivals  understood  that  they  were  in  danger  from  one  another, 
they  disentangled  themselves  and  fled  apart A  few  min- 
utes after,  their  fears  ceased  and  they  attacked  one  another 
again,  with  the  same  result.  The  worker  bees  were  much  dis- 
turbed, all  this  time,  and  more  so  while  the  combatants  were 
separated.  Each  time,  the  bees  stopped  the  queens  in  their 
flight,  keeping  them  prisoners  for  a  minute.  At  last,  in  a 
third  attack,  the  stronger,  or  more  savage,  of  the  queens,  ran 
to  her  unsuspecting  rival,  seized  her  across  the  wings,  and, 
climbing  upon  her,  pierced  her  with  her  sting.  The  vanquished 
queen,  crawled  languidly  about,  and  soon  after  died.'' — ("  Nou- 
velles  Observations. ' ') 

117.  Although  it  is  generally  admitted  that  two  queens 
cannot  inhabit  the  same  hive,  it  happens,  sometimes,  that 
mother  and  daughter  are  found  living  peaceably  together, 
and  even  laying  eggs  at  the  same  time.  This  is  when  the 
bees,  having  noticed  the  decrease  in  fecundity  of  the  old 
queen,  have  raised  a  young  queen  to  replace  her.  But  this 
abnormal  state  lasts  only  a  few  Aveeks,  or  a  few  months  at 
most. 

118.  Our  junior  partnei-  was,  one  day,  hunting  for  a 
queen  with  his  sister.  "What  a  large  and  bright-colored 
queen !"  exclaimed  he,  on  finding  her.  ''Why,  no !  she  is  dark 
and  small,"  said  bis  sister.  Both  were  right,  for  there  were 
two  queens,  mother  and  daughter,  on  the  same  comb,  and 
not  six  inches  apart.  At  another  time  we  were  looking  for 
an  old  queen,  whose  prolificness  had  decreased,  intending  to 
supersede  her.  To  our  wonder,  the  hive  was  full  of  brood. 
We   found   the  old   queen.      Evident^   a  queen   so  small,  so 


'Fn^  QUEEN.  r)3 

ragged  and  worn,  could  not  be  the  mother  of  such  a  quan- 
tify of  brood.  We  continued  our  search  and  found  another 
queen,  daughter  of   the   first,   large   and   plump.  Had  we 

introduced  a  strange  queen  into  this  hive,  after  having  de- 
stroyed the  old  one,  thinking  that  we  had  made  the  colony 
(jueenless,  she  would  have  been  killed. 

119.  We  could  relate  a  number  of  such  instances.  The 
most  interesting  case  was  the  simultaneous  laying  of  two 
fjueens  of  different  breeds  in  the  same  hive,  one  black,  the 
other  Italian.  The  colonj^  had  two  queens,  when  we  intro- 
duced our  Italian  queen.  We  found  the  younger  one  and 
killed  her,  and  the  old  one  was  so  little  considered  bj^  her 
bees,  that  they  accepted  our  imported  queen  and  allowed  both 
to  remain  together.  To  our  astonishment  there  were  some 
black  bees  hatching  among  the  pure  Italians,  and  it  was  not 
till  we  accidentallj^  discovered  the  old  black  queen  that  we 
understood  the  matter. 

There  are  more  such  cases  than  most  bee-keepers  would 
imagine,  and  when  these  happen  to  buyers  of  improved  races 
of  bees,  if  they  are  not  veiy  close  observers,  they  are  apt  to 
accuse  venders  of  having  cheated  them.  Such  instances  make 
the  business  of  queen  selling  quite  disagreeable. 

120.  T:mpregxatiox,  — The  fecundation  of  the  queen  bee 
has  occupied  the  minds  of  Apiarists  and  savants  for  ages, 
A  number  of  theories  were  advanced.  If  a  number  of  drones 
are  confined  in  a  small  box,  they  give  forth  a  strong  odor: 
Swammerdam  supposed  that  the  queen  was  impregnated  by 
this  scent  (aura  seminaUs)  of  the  drones,  Reaumur,  a  re- 
nowned entomologist,  in  1744,  thought  that  the  mating  of 
the  queen  was  effected  inside  of  the  hive.  Others  advanced 
that  the  eggs  were  impregnated  by  the  drones  in  the  cells. 

After  making  a  number  of  experiments  to  verify  these 
fheories,  and  finding  all  false,  Huber  finally  ascertained  that, 
like  many  other  insects,  the  queen  was  fecundated  in  the 
open  air  and  on  the  wing;  and  that  the  influence  of  this 
connection  lasts  for  several  years,  and  probably  for  life, 

121.  Five  days  or  more  after  her  birth,  the  virgin  queen 


54  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HOXEY-BEE. 

goes  out  to  have  intercourse  with  a  drone.  Several  bee-keepers 
of  note,  such  as  Neighbour  of  England  ("Cook's  Manual, 
1884),  and  Dzierzon  of  Gennany,  wrote  that  a  queen  may 
go  out  on  her  marriage-flight  when  only  three  days  old.  The 
shortest  time  we  have  ever  noticed  between  the  birth  of  a 
queen  and  her  first  bridal-flight  was  five  days,  and  on  this  we 
are  in  accordance  with  Mr.  Alley  of  Massachusetts,  one  of 
the  most  extensive  queen  breeders  in  the  world.  The  average 
time  is  six  or  seven  days.  Earlier  bridal-trips  are  probably 
due  to  the  disturbing  of  the  colony  by  the  Apiarist,  for  we 
have  noticed  that  this  disturbing  hastens  the  maturity  of 
the  workers.  The  bridal-flight  takes  place  about  noon,  at 
which  time,  the  drones  are  fljung  most  numerous]j\ 

122.  On  leaving  her  hive,  the  queen  flies  with  her  head 
turned  towards  it,  often  entermg  and  departing  several  times 
before  she  finally  soars  into  the  air.  Such  precautions  on  the 
part  of  a  young  queen  are  highly  necessaiy,  that  she  may 
not,  on  her  return,  lose  her  life,  by  attempting,  through  mis- 
take, to  enter  a  strange  hive.  Many  queens  are  lost  in  this 
way. 

123.  As  the  matmg  of  tlie  queen  and  the  drone  takes 
place  in  the  air,  veiy  few  persons  have  witnessed  it.  The 
following  narration  will  please  our  readers: 

"A  short  time  ago,  during  one  of  those  pleasant  days  of  May, 
I  was  roaming  in  the  fields,  not  far  from  Coiirbevoie.  Suddenly 
I  heard  a  loud  humming  and  the  wind  of  a  rapid  flight  brushed 
my  cheek.  Fearing  the  attack  of  a  hornet,  I  made  an  instinc- 
tive motion  with  my  hand  to  drive  it  away.  There  were  two 
insects,  one  of  which  pursued  the  other  with  eagerness,  coming 
from  high  in  the  air.  Frightened  no  doubt,  by  my  movements,  they 
arose  again,  flying  vertically  to  a  great  height,  still  in  pursuit 
of  each  other.  I  imagined  that  it  was  a  battle,  and  desiring 
to  know  the  result,  I  followed,  at  my  best,  their  motions  in  the 
air,  and  got  ready  to  lay  hold  of  them,  as  soon  as  they  would 
be  within  reach. 

"I  did  not  wait  long.  The  pursuing  insect  rose  above  the 
other,  and  suddenly  fell  on  it.  The  shock  was  certainly  violent, 
for  both  united,  dropped  with  the   swiftness  of  an   arrow  and 


THE   QUEEN.  55 

passed  by  me,  so  near  that  I  struck  them  down  with  my  hand- 
kerchief. I  then  discovered  that  this  bitter  battle  was  but  a 
love-suit.  The  two  insects,  stunned  and  motionless,  were 
coupled.  The  copulation  had  taken  place  in  the  air,  at  the  in- 
stant when  I  had  seen  one  of  them  falling  on  the  other,  twenty 
or  twenty-five  feet  above  the  ground. 

"It  was  a  queen-bee  and  a  drone.  Persuaded  that  I  had 
killed  them,  I  made  no  scruple  of  piercing  them  both  with  the 
same  pin.  But  the  pain  recalled  them  to  life  again,  and  they 
promptly  separated.  This  separation  was  violent,  and  resulted 
in  the  tearing  off  of  the  drone's  organ  (ISS)  which  remained 
attached  to  the  queen.  The  queen  was  yet  alive  on  the  follow- 
ing morning.  For  some  time  after  her  separation  from  the 
drone,  she  brushed  the  last  ring  of  her  abdomen,  as  though 
trying  to  extract  the  organ  of  the  drouo.  She  endeavored  to 
bend  herself,  probably  in  order  to  bring  this  part  within  reach 
of  her  jaws,  which  were  constantly  moving,  but  the  pin  pre- 
vented her  from  attaining  her  aim.  Her  activity  soon  de- 
creased, and  she  ceased  to  move." — (Alex.  Levi,  Journal  Des 
Fermes,  Paris,  1869.) 

Messrs.  Caiy  and  Otis  had  witnessed  a  similar  occurrence 
in  July,  1861.      {American  Bee  Journal,  Vol.  I,  page  66.) 

124.  It  is  now  well  demonstrated  that  in  a  single  mating, 
a  queen  is  fertilized  for  life,  although  in  a  few  rare  instances 
thej'  have  been  said  to  mate  two  days  in  succession,  perhaps 
because  the  first  mating  was  insufficient. 

125.  After  the  queen  has  re-entered  the  hive,  she  gets 
rid  of  the  organ  of  the  drone  by  drawing  it  with  her  claws, 
and  she  is  sometimes  helped  in  this  work  by  the  worker-bees. 
The  drone  dies  in  the  act  of  fertilization.     (188.) 

126.  Although  fertilization  of  the  queen  in  confinement 
has  been  tried  by  many,  it  has  never  been  successful.  Those 
who,  from  time  to  time,  claimed  to  have  succeeded  were  evi- 
dentlv  deceiving  themselves  through  ill-made  experiments. 
(187.) 

127.  Having  ascertained  that  the  queen-bee  is  fecund- 
ated in  the  open  air  and  on  the  wing,  Huber  still  could  not 
form    any   satisfactoiy    conjecture   how   eggs   were    fertilized 


5(3  PHYSIOLOCiV    OF   Tilt:    HONEY-BEE. 

■which  were  not  yet  developed  in  her  ovaries.  Years  ago,  the 
celebrated  Dr.  John  Hunter  (1792),  and  others,  supposed  that 
there  must  be  a  permanent  receptacle  for  the  male  sperm, 
oi)ening'  into  the  oviduct.  Dzierzon,  who  must  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  ablest  contributors  of  modern  times  to  apiarian 
science,  maintained  this  opinion,  and  stated  that  he  had 
found  such  a  receptacle  filled  with  a  fluid  resembling  the 
semen  of  the  drones.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  then  demon- 
strated his  discoveries  by  any  miscroscopic  examinations. 

128.  In  the  Winter  of  1851-2,  the  writer  submitted  for 
scientific  examination  several  queen-bees  to  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy, 
of  Philadelphia,  Avho  had  the  highest  reputation  both  at  home 
and  abroad,  as  a  naturalist  and  miscroscopic  anatomist.  He 
found,  in  making  his  dissections,  a  small  globular  sac,  about 
1-38  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  communicating  with  the  oviduct, 
and  filled  with  a  Avhitish  fluid;  this  fluid,  when  examined  un- 
der the  miscroscope,  abounded  in  the  spermatozoids,  the  living 
germs  which  characterize  the  seminal  fluid.  A  comparison  of 
this  substance,  later  in  the  season,  with  the  semen  of  a  drone, 
proved  them  to  be  exact!}'  alike.  Prof.  Siebold,  in  1843, 
examined  the  spermatheca  of  the  queen-bee,  and  found  it 
after  copulation,  filled  with  the  seminal  fluid  of  the  drone. 
At  that  time,  Apiarists  paid  no  attention  to  his  views,  but 
considered  them,  as  he  says,  to  be  only  ^^theoretical  stuff  J'  It 
seems,  then,  that  Prof.  Leidy's  dissection  was  not,  as  we  had 
hitherto  supposed,  the  first,  of  an  impregnated  spermatheca. 

129.  These  examinations  have  settled,  on  the  impregnable 
basis  of  demonstration,  the  mode  in  which  the  eggs  of  the 
queen  are  fecundated.  In  descending  the  oviduct  to  be  de- 
posited in  the  cells,  they  pass  by  the  mouth  of  this  seminal 
sac,  or  "spermatheca"  and  receive  a  portion  of  its  fertilizing- 
contents.  Small  as  it  is,  it  contains  sufficient  to  impregnate 
millions  of  eggs.  In  precisely  the  same  way,  the  mother- 
wasps  and  hornets  are  fecundated.  The  females  only  of 
these  insects  survive  the  Winter,  and  often  a  single  one  begins 
the  construction  of  a  nest,  in  which  at  first  only  a  few  eggs 
are  deposited.     How  could  these  eggs  hatch,  if  the  females 


Plate  10. 


THE    OVARIES     OF    THE     QUEEN.     IX     COMBIXATIOX    WITH     THE 

STING. 

(Magnified.) 

H  and   G,  ovaries   uniting  in  a  common  oviduct  E;  D,  spermatheca  ;  A; 

poison-pack  ;    R,    rectum  ;    C,    muscles  ;    F,    air    bag. 


THE   QUEE>r.  57 

had  not  been  impregnated  the  previous  season?  Dissection 
proves  that  they  have  a  spermatheca  similar  to  that  of  the 
queen-bee.  It  never  seems  to  have  occurred  to  the  opponents 
of  Huber,  that  the  existence  of  a  permanently-impregnated 
mother-wasp  is  quite  as  difficult  to  be  accounted  for.  as  the 
existence   of  a  similarly  impregnated  queen-bee. 

130,  The  celebrated  Swammerdam,  in  his  observations 
upon  mseets,  made  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, has  given  a  highly  magnified  drawing  of  the  ovaries  of 
the  queen-bee,  a  reduced  copy  of  which  we  present  (Plate  10) 
to  our  readers.  The  small  globular  sac  (D),  communicating 
with  the  oviduct  (£"),  which  he  thought  secreted  a  fluid  for 
sticking  the  eggs  to  the  base  of  the  cells,  is  the  seminal  reser- 
voir, or  spermatheca.  Any  one  Avho  will  carefuUj'  dissect  a 
queen-bee,  may  see  this  sac,  even  with  the  naked  eye. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  ovaries  {G  and  H)  are  double,  each 
consisting  of  an  amazing  number  of  ducts  filled  with  eggs, 
which  gradually  increase  in  size.  Since  the  first  edition  of 
this  work  was  issued,  we  have  ascertained  that  Posel  (page 
54)  describes  the  oviduct  of  the  queen,  the  spermatheca  and 
its  contents,  and  the  use  of  the  latter  in  impregnating  the 
passing  egg.  His  work  was  published  at  Munich,  in  ITS-i.  It 
seems  also  from  his  work  ("A  Complete  Treatise  of  Forest 
and  Horticultural  Bee-Culture,"  page  3G),  that  before  the 
investigations  of  Huber,  Jansha,  the  bee-keeper  royal  of 
Maria  Theresa,  had  discovered  the  fact  that  the  young  queens 
leave  their  hive  in  seai'ch  of  the  drones. 

131.  Huber,  while  experimenting  to  ascertain  how  the 
queen-  was  fecundated,  confined  some  young  ones  to  their 
hives  by  contracting  the  entrances,  so  that  they  were  more 
than  three  weeks  old  before  they  could  go  in  search  of  the 
drones.  To  his  amazement,  the  queens  whose  impregnation 
was  thus  retarded  never  laid  any  eggs  but  such  as  produced 
drones ! 

He  tried  this  experiment  repeatedly,  but  always  with  the 
same  result.  Bee-keepers,  even  from  the  time  of  Aristotle,  had 
observed  that  all  the  brood  in  a  hive  were  occasionally  drones, 


58  IMIVSIOI.OCV    OF    'rilE    ilUXEY-HEt:. 

132.  Dzierzon  ai)pears  to  have  l)eeii  the  lirst  to  ascertain 
the  truth  on  this  subject ;  and  his  discovery  nuist  certainly 
be  ranked  among  the  most  astonisliing'  facts  in  all  the  range 
of  animated  nature. 

Dzierzon  asserted  that  all  impregnated  eggs  produce  fe- 
males, either  workers  or  queens;  and  all  unimpregnated  ones, 
males,  or  drones!  He  stated  that  in  several  of  his  hives  he 
found  drone-laying  queens,  whose  wings  were  so  imperfect 
that  they  could  not  fly,  and  which,  on  examination,  proved 
to  be  unfecundated.  Hence,  he  concluded  that  the  eggs 
laid  by  an  unimpregnated  queen-bee  had  sufficient  vitality 
to  produce   drones. 

133.  Parthenogenesis,  meanmg  "generation  of  a  virgin," 
is  the  name  given  to  this  faculty  of  a  female,  to  produce 
offsj^rmg  without  having  been  fecundated,  and  is  not  at  all 
rare  among  insects. 

134.  In  the  Autumn  of  1852,  our  assistant  found  a  young 
queen  whose  progeny  consisted  entirely  of  drones.  The 
colony  had  been  formed  by  removing  a  few  combs  contain- 
ing bees,  brood,  and  eggs,  from  another  hive,  and  had  raised 
a  new  queen.  Some  eggs  were  found  in  one  of  the  combs, 
and  young  bees  were  already  emerging  from  the  cells,  all  of 
which  were  drones.  As  there  were  none  but  worker-cells  in 
the  hive,  they  were  reared  in  them,  and  not  having  space  for 
full  development,  they  were  dwarfed  in  size,  although  the 
bees  had  pieced  the  cells  to  give  more  room  to  their  occu- 
pants. 

We  were  not  only  surprised  to  find  drones  reared  in  worker- 
cells,  but  equally  so  that  a  young  queen,  who  at  first  lays 
only  the  eggs  of  workers,  should  be  laying  drone-eggs;  and 
at  once  conjectured  that  this  was  a  ease  of  an  unimpregnated 
drone-laying  queen,  sufficient  time  not  having  elapsed  for  her 
impregnation  to  be  unnaturally  retarded.  All  necessary  pre- 
cautions were  taken  to  determine  this  point.  The  queen  was 
removed  from  the  hive,  and  although  her  wings  appeared  to 
be  perfect,  she  could  not  fly.  It  seemed  probable,  therefore, 
that  she  had  never  been  able  to  leave  the  hive  for  impregnat?  x 


THE    t^UEK.N.  59 

135.  To  settle  the  question  beyond  the  possibiUt}'  of 
doubt,  ^xe  submitted  this  queen  to  Professor  Leidy  for  mi- 
croscopic examination.  The  following  is  an  extract  from 
his  report :  "The  ovaries  were  filled  with  eggs,  the  poison- 
sac  full  of  fluid;  and  the  spermatheca  distended  with  a  per- 
fectly colorless,  transparent,  viscid  liquid,  without  a  trace  of 
spermatozoids:' 

136.  On  examining  this  same  colony  a  few  days  later,  we 
found  satisfactory  evidence  that  these  drone-eggs  were  laid 
by  the  queen  which  had  been  removed.  Xo  fresh  eggs  had 
been  deposited  in  the  cells,  and  the  bees  on  missing  her  had 
begun  to  build  royal  cells,  to  rear,  if  possible,  another  queen. 
Two  of  the  royal  cells  were  in  a  short  time  discontinued; 
while  a  third  was  sealed  over  in  the  usual  Avaj^,  to  undergo 
its  changes  to  a  perfect  queen.  As  the  bees  had  only  a  drone- 
laying  queen,  whence  came  the  female  egg  from  which  they 
were  rearing  a  queen? 

At  first  we  imagined  that  they  might  have  stolen  it  from 
another  hive;  but  on  opening  this  cell  it  contained  only  a 
dead  drone!  Huber  had  described  a  similar  mistake  made 
by  some  of  his  bees.  At  the  base  of  this  cell  was  an  un- 
usual quantitj'  of  the  peculiar  jelly  fed  to  develop  young 
([ueens.  One  might  almost  imagine  that  the  bees  had  dosed 
the  unfortunate  drone  to  death;  as  though  they  had  hoped 
by  such  liberal  feeding  to  produce  a  change  in  his  sexual 
cn-ganization. 

137.  In  the  Summer  of  1854,  we  found  another  drone- 
laying  queen  in  our  Apiaiy,  with  wings  so  shrivelled  that 
she  could  not  fly.  We  gave  her  successivelj^  to  several  queen - 
less  colonies,  in  all  of  which  she  deposited  only  drone-eggs. 

138.  In  Italy  there  is  a  variety  of  the  honey-bee  differing 
in  size  and  color  from  the  common  kind.  If  a  queen  of  this 
variety  is  crossed  with  the  common  drones,  her  drone-prog- 
eny will  be  Italian  (551),  and  her  worker-brood  a  cross 
between  the  two;  thus  showing  that  the  kind  of  drones  she 
will  produce  has  no  dependence  on  the  male  by  which  she 
is  fecundated. 


60  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HONEY-BEE. 

''The  following  interesting  experiment  was  made  by  Ber 
lepsch,  in  order  to  confirm  the  drone-productiveness  of  a  virgin 
queen.  He  contrived  the  confinement  of  queens  at  the  end  of 
September,  1854,  and,  therefore,  at  a  time  when  there  was  no 
longer  any  males;  he  was  lucky  enough  to  keep  one  of  them 
through  the  Winter,  and  this  produced  drone-offspring  on  the 
2d  of  March,  in  the  following  year,  furnishing  fifteen  hundred 
cells  with  brood.  That  this  drone-bearing  queen  remained  a 
virgin,  was  proved  by  the  dissection  which  Lcuckart  undertook, 
at  the  request  of  Berlepsch.  He  found  the  state  and  contents 
of  the  seminal  pouch  of  this  queen  to  be  exactly  of  the  same 
nature  as  those  found  in  virgin  queens.  The  seminal  receptacle 
in  such  females  never  contains  semen-masses,  with  their  char- 
acteristic spermatozoids,  but  only  a  limpid  fluid,  destitute  of 
cells  and  granules  which  is  produced  from  the  two  appendicu- 
lar glands  of  the  seminal  capsule;  and,  as  I  suppose,  serves  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  semen  transferred  into  the  seminal  cap- 
sule in  a  fresh  state,  and  the  spermatozoids  active,  and,  conse- 
quently, capable  of  impregnation." — (Siebold,  "Parthenogen- 
esis.") 

131>.  Again,  to  prove  that  Dzierzon  was  right,  Professor 
Von  Siebold,  in  1855,  dissected  several  eggs  at  the  Apiaiy 
of  Baron  Von  Berlepsch,  and  he  found  spermatozoids  in 
eveiy  female  egg,  or  egg  laid  in  Avorker-cell,  but  although 
he  examined  thirty-two  male  eggs,  or  eggs  laid  in  drone- 
cells,  he  could  not  discover  a  single  spermatozoid  either  in 
or  around  them.  In  the  act  of  copulation,  the  spenii  of  the 
drone  is  received  into  the  spermatheca  (Plate  10,  D),  which 
is  placed  near  and  can  empty  itself  into  the  oviduct.  When 
an  egg  passes  by  the  spermatheca,  if  the  circumstances  are 
such  that  a  few  spermatozoids  empty  out  of  the  bag  on  the 
egg,  the  sex  of  it  is  changed  from  male  to  female. 

It  appears  that  there  is  in  each  egg  a  small  opening  called 
mieropyle,  through  which  the  living  spermatozoids  enter,  when 
the  circumstances  are  such  that  a  few  of  them  can  slip  out  of 
the  seminal  bag  and  slide  into  the  oviduct.  Such  is  the  pro- 
cess of  irtipregnation. 

140.     Anstotle  noticed,   more  than   2,000  years   ago,  that 


Plate  11. 


DZIERZON, 

Discoverer  of  Parthenogenesis  in  Queen-bees. 

This  writer   is   mentioned  pages   54,    56,   58,  60,    62,   64,   66,   68,   69,    '{5, 

84,    124,    125,    140,    145,    244,    294,    296,    297,    298, 

360,    361.    366,    375,   397,    549. 


THE    QUEEN.  61 

the  eggs  wliicli  iDroduce  drones  are  like  the  worker-eggs.* 
With  the  aid  of  powerful  microscopes  we  are  still  unable  to 
detect  any  difference  in  the  size  or  outside  appearance  of 
the  eggs  of  the  queen. 

141.  These  facts,  taken  in  connection,  constitute  a  per- 
fect demonstration  that  unfecundated  queens  are  not  only  able 
to  lay  eggs,  but  that  their  eggs  have  sufficient  vitality  to 
produce  drones. 

It  seems  to  us  probable,  that  after  fecundation  has  been 
delayed  for  about  three  weeks,  the  organs  of  the  queen-bee 
are  in  such  a  condition  that  it  can  no  longer  be  effected; 
just  as  the  parts  of  a  flower,  after  a  certain  time,  wither 
and  shut  up,  and  the  plant  becomes  incapable  of  fructifica- 
tion. Perhaps,  after  a  certain  time,  the  queen  loses  all  de- 
sire to  go  in  search  of  the  male. 

There  is  something  analogous  to  these  Avonders  in  the 
^''aphides''  or  green  lice,  which  infest  plants.  We  have  un- 
doubted evidence  that  a  fecundated  female  gives  birth  to 
other  females,  and  they  in  turn  to  others,  all  of  which  with- 
out impregnation  are  able  to  bring  forth  young;  until,  after 
a  number  of  generations,  perfect  males  and  females  are  pro- 
duced, and  the  series  starts  anew! 

However  improbable  it  may  appear  that  an  unimpregnated 
egg  can  give  birth  to  a  living  being,  or  that  sex  can  depend 
on  impregnation,  we  are  not  at  liberty  to  reject  facts  be- 
cause we  cannot  comprehend  the  reasons  of  them.  He  who 
allows  himself  to  be  guilty  of  such  folly,  if  he  aims  to  be  con- 
sistent, must  eventually  be  plunged  into  the  dreaiy  gulf  of 
atheism.  Common  sense,  philosophy,  and  religion  alike  teach 
us  to  receive,  with  becoming  reverence,  all  undoubted  facts, 
whether  in  the  natural  or  spiritual  world;  assured  that  how- 
ever mysterious  they  may  appear  to  us,  they  are  beautifully 
consistent  in  the  sight  of  Him  whose  ^'understanding  is  in- 
finite.'' 


*  Cheshire  says  that  "worker-egg"  is  a  misnomer,  since  all  worker- 
eggs  are  impregnated,  and  hence  female-eggs.  But  the  term  is  too  in- 
telligible and  popular,  for  us  to  change  it ;  since  Cheshire  himself 
bows  before  custom,  and  uses  it. 


62  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 

142.  It  had  long  been  known  that  the  queen  deposits 
drone-eggs  in  the  large  or  drone-cells,  and  worker-eggs  in 
the  small  or  worker-cells  (fig  47),  and  that  she  usually  makes 
no  mistakes.  Dzierzon  mf erred,  therefore,  that  there  was 
some  way  in  which  she  w^as  able  to  decide  the  sex  of  the  egg 
before  it  was  laid,  and  that  she  must  have  such  control  over 
the  mouth  of  the  seminal  sac  as  to  be  able  to  extrude  her 
eggs,  allowing  them  at  will  to  receive  or  not  a  portion  of  its 
fertilizing  contents.  In  this  way  he  thought  she  determined 
their  sex,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cells  in  which  she  laid 
them. 

143.  Mr.  Samuel  Wagner  had  advanced  a  highly  in- 
genious theoiy,  which  accoimted  for  all  the  facts,  without 
admitting  that  the  queen  had  any  special  knowledge  or  will 
on  the  subject.  He  supposed  that,  Avhen  she  deposited  her 
eggs  in  the  worker-cells,  her  body  was  slight Ij^  compressed  by 
their  size,  thus  causing  the  eggs  as  they  passed  the  sperma- 
theca  to  receive  its  vivifying  mfluenee. 

144.  But  this  theoiy  was  overthrown  by  the  fact  that 
the  queen  sometimes  lays  eggs  in  cells  that  are  built  only  to 
a  third  of  their  length,  whether  worker-cells  or  drone-cells, 
and  m  which  no  compression  can  take  place.  Yet,  it  is  veiy 
difficult  to  admit  that  the  queen  is  endowed  with  a  faculty 
that  no  other  animal  possesses,  that  of  knowing  and  deciding 
the  sex  of  her  progeny  beforehand.  It  seems  to  us  that  she 
must  be  guided  by  her  instinct  like  all  other  beings,  for  she 
always  begins,  in  the  Spring,  by  laying  in  small  cells,  using 
large  cells  only  when  no  others  are  in  reach  in  the  warm 
part  of  the  hive.  Sometimes,  however,  when  she  is  veiy 
hea\y  with  eggs,  she  lays  in  drone-cells  as  she  comes  to  them, 
and  will  sometimes  seek  them.  Usually  it  is  only  when  the 
hive  is  warm  throughout,  and  worker-cells  all  occupied,  that 
she  fills  the  unoccupied  drone-cells.  This  has  given  rise  to 
the  popular  theory  that  the  bees  raise  drones  whenever  they 
intend  to  swarm.  It  is  possible  that  the  width  of  the  cells 
and  the  position  of  her  legs  when  laying  in  drone-cells  (224) 
prevents  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  her  spermatheca. 


145.  The  preference  of  the  queeii  for  worker-cells  can 
not  be  disputed.  If  all  the  drone-combs  are  removed  from  a 
hive  and  replaced  with  worker-combs,  she  will  not  show  any 
displeasure.  She  will  live  in  that  hive  for  years,  without 
laying  any  drone-eggs,  except,  perhaps,  here  and  there,  in 
odd-shaped  junction-cells.  Mr.  A.  I.  Root  makes  the  same 
remark : 

''By  having  a  hive  furnished  entirely  with  worker-comb,  we 
can  so  nearly  prevent  the  production  of  drones,  that  it  is  safe 
enough  to  call  it  a  complete  remedy." — (''A  B  C  of  Bee  Cul- 
ture," 1883.) 

146.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  furnish  a  swarm  with 
nothing  but  drone-comb,  already  built,  they  would  soon  leave 
the  hive.  But,  if  a  few  worker-cells  are  among  the  drone- 
cells,  the  queen  will  find  them  and  w411  lay  in  them.  On  this 
subject,  Mr.  Root  says: 

147.  "Bees  sometimes  rear  worker-brood  in  drone-comb 
when  compelled  to  from  want  of  room,  and  they  always  do  it 
by  contracting  the  mouth  of  the  cells,  and  leaving  the  young 
bee  a  rather  large  berth  in  which  to  grow  and  develop."  "If 
you  give  a  young  laying  queen  a  hive  supplied  only  with  drone- 
combs,  she  will  rear  worker-brood  in  these  drone-cells.  The 
mouth  of  the  cells  will  be  contracted  with  wax  as  mentioned 
before." 

148.  An  experiment,  made  in  Bordeaux,  under  the  SU' 
pervision  of  Mr.  Drory,  editor  of  the  "Rucher,"  has  proven 
that  the  queen  may  lay  worker-eggs  in  drone-cells.  A  piece 
of  drone-comb  containing  worker-brood,  was  sent  us  by  him. 
The  eggs  were  laid  irregular^  and  the  mouth  of  the  cells  had 
been  contracted,  as  mentioned  by  Mr.  Root.  This  contraction 
of  the  cell  mouth  seems  indispensable  to  enable  the  queen  to 
put  in  motion  the  muscles  of  her  spermatheca. 

149.  We  will  add,  with  Mr.  Root,  that  in  the  Spring,  or 
late  in  the  Fall,  when  the  crop  is  not  abundant,  the  queen 
will  travel  over  drone-combs  without  depositing  a  single  egg- 
in  them      Even   by   feeding  the  colony,  when  in   these  con- 


64 


l*HVSlULO<iV    OF    TllK    llUNKY-HhlE. 


ditions,  the  queen  cannot  be  readily  induced  to  lay  in  drone- 
ceils.  Our  conclusions  on  this  point  differ  from  those  of 
Mr.  Root.  We  think  that  the  queen  prefers  worker-cells  to 
drone-cells,  because  the  fecundation  of  the  eggs  by  the  action 
of  the  muscles  of  the  spermatheca  probablj-  gives  her  a  pleas- 
ant sensation,  which  she  does  not  experience  in  laying  drone- 
eggs. 


Fig.    2-i. 
ABDOMEN     OF    THE    QUEEN-BEE. 

(Magnified.      From   the   "Illustricrtc  Bicnenzeitung.'') 

U;  h,  c,  d,  e,  rings  of  the  abdomen  ;  .V,  nerve-chain  ;  M,  honey-sack 
E,  ovaries ;  D,  stomach ;  R.  rectum ;  G,  ganglions ;  A,  anus ;  Ss,  ovi 
positor ;     St,   sting ;    P,  muscles  ;    H,   gland  ;     S,  poison-sack. 


150.  Some  veiy  prolific  queens  occasionally  lay  drone- 
eggs  in  worker-cells.  It  may  be  due  to  fatigue.  This  will 
readily  be  admitted  when  we  consider  the  number  of  eggs 
laid  in  one  day.   (98.) 

151.  Dzierzon  found  that  a  queen  which  had  been  refrig- 
erated for  a  long  time,  after  being  brought  to  life  by  warmth, 
laid  only  male  eggs,  whilst  previously  she  had  also  laid  fe- 
male eggs.  Berlepsch  refrigerated  three  queens  by  placing 
them  thirt3'-six  hours  in  an  ice-house.  Two  of  thlem  never 
]-evived,  and  the  third  laid,  as  before,  thousands  of  eggs, 
but  from  all  of  them  only  males  were  evolved.  In  two  in- 
stances, Mr.  Mahan  has,  at  our  suggestion,  tried  similar  ex- 
periments, and  with  like  results.  A  short  exposure  of  a 
queen,  to  pounded  ice  and  salt,  answers  even-  purpose.     The 


THE    QIKKX.  ,  05 

spenuatozoids  aiv  in  sonic  way  I'eiuk'red  in()i)erative  by  severe 
cold. 

152.  The  queen  begins  laying  about  two  days  after  im- 
pregiiation.  She  is  seldom  treated  with  much  attention  by 
the  bees  until  after  she  has  begun  to  replenish  the  cells  with 
eggs;  although  if  previously  deprived  of  her,  they  show, 
by  their  despair,  that  thej^  fully  appreciated  her  importance 
to  their  welfare. 

The  extra ordinaiy  fertility  of  the  queen-bee  has  already 
been  noticed.  The  process  of  laying  has  been  well  described 
by  the  Rev.  W.  Dunbar,  a  Scotch  Apiarist : 

153.  "When  the  queen  is  about  to  lay,  she  puts  her  head 
into  a  cell,  and  remains  in  that  position  for  a  second  or  two,  to 
ascertain  its  fitness  for  the  deposit  she  is  about  to  make.  She 
then  withdraws  her  head,  and  curving  her  body  downwards,  in- 
serts the  lower  part  of  it  into  the  cell;  in  a  few  seconds  she 
turns  half  round  upon  herself  and  withdraws,  leaving  an  egg 
behind  her." 

In  the  Winter,  or  early  Spring,  she  lays  first  in  the  middle 
t.f  the  cluster,  and  continues  in  a  circle,  aroimd  the  first  eggs 
laid,  till  she  has  filled  most  of  the  wanned  space.  She 
then  crosses  over  to  the  next  comb  and  does  the  same  thing; 
as  the  bees  always  cluster  on  different  combs  in  groups  ex- 
actly opposite,  to  produce  the  utmost  possible  concentration 
and  economy  of  heat  for  developing  the  various  changes  of 
the  brood. 

154.  Queens  lay  more  or  less  according  to,  Ist,  The  sea- 
son; 2nd,  The  number  of  bees  that  keep  up  the  heat  of  the 
brood-nest,  and  3d,  The  quantity  of  food  which  thej^  eat. 
When  bees  har^-est  honey  or  pollen,  or  when  these  necessaries 
are  provided  artificially  by  the  Apiarist,  they  feed  the  queen 
as  they  pass  by  her,  oftener  than  they  would  otherwise;  hence 
her  laying  increases  in  Spring,  and  decreases  in  Summer  or 
Fall.  It  is  certain  that  when  the  weather  is  uncongenial,  or 
the  colony  too  feeble  to  maintain  sufficient  heat,  fewer  eggs 
are  matured,  just  as  unfavorable  circumstances  diminish  the 


66  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HOXEY-BEE. 

number  of  eggs  laid  by  the  hen;   and  when  the  weather  is 
very  cold,  the  queen  stops  laying,  in  weak  colonies. 

In  the  latitude  of  Northern  Massachusetts,  we  have  found 
that  the  queen  ordinarily  ceases  to  laj'  some  time  in  October; 
and  begins  again,  in  strong  stocks,  in  the  latter  part  of  Decem- 
ber. On  the  14th  of  Januai'j",  1S57  (the  previous  month  having 
been  verj^  cold,  the  thenncmeter  sometimes  smking  to  17°  be- 
low zero),  we  exammed  three  hives,  and  found  that  the  central 
combs  m  two  contained  eggs  and  misealed  brood;  there  were 
a  few  cells  with  sealed  brood  in  the  third.  Strong  stocks, 
even  in  the  coldest  climates,  usually  contain  some  brood  ten 
months  in  the  year. 

155.  '^  Queens  differ  much  as  to  the  degree  of  their  fertil- 
ity. Those  are  best  which  deposit  their  eggs  with  uniform  reg- 
ularity, leaving  no  cells  unsupplied — as  the  brood  hatches  at  the 
same  time  on  the  same  range  of  comb,  which  can  be  again  sup- 
plied; the  queen  thus  losing  no  time  in  searching  for  empty 
cells. ' ' — (Dzierzon.) 

In  bee-life,  as  well  as  in  human  affairs,  those  who  are 
sj'stematic,  ordinarily  accomplish  the  most. 

To  test  the  difference  of  fecundity  between  queens,  Mr. 
De  Layens,  while  transferrmg  bees  (574),  in  middle  April, 
comited  the  eggs  dropped  on  a  black  cloth  (577),  in  forty 
mmutes,  by  the  queens  of  four  different  colonies.  The 
poorest  queen  dropped  but  one  egg,  the  second  twelve,  the 
third  eighteen,  and  the  fourth  twenty.  On  the  fifteenth  of 
July  the  colony  of  the  first  queen  was  veiy  poor,  the  second 
was  of  average  strength,  and  both  the  others  Avere  veiy  strong. 

156.  It  is  amusing  to  see  how  the  supernumeraiy  eggs 
of  the  queen  are  disposed  of.  If  the  workers  are  too  few  to 
take  charge  of  all  her  eggs,  if  there  is  a  deficiency  of  bee- 
bread  to  nourish  the  yomig;  or  if,  for  any  reason,  she  does 
not  think  best  to  deposit  them  in  the  cells,  she  stands  upon 
a  comb,  and  simply  extnides  them  from  her  oviduct,  the 
workers  devouring  them  as  fast  as  they  are  laid. 

One  who  carefully  watches  the  habits  of  bees  will  often 
feel   inclmed   to   speak  of  his  little   favorites  as  having  an 


THE   WORKER-BEE.  67 

intelligence  almost  if  not  quite  akin  to  reason;  and  we  have 
sometimes  queried,  whether  the  workers  who  are  so  fond  of 
a  tit-bit  in  the  shape  of  a  newly-laid  egg  ever  experienced 
a  struggle  between  appetite  and  duty;  so  that  they  must 
practice  self-denial  to  refrain  from  breakfasting  on  the  eggs 
so  temptingly  deposited  in  the  cells. 

157.  It  is  well  known  to  breeders  of  poultry,  that  the 
fertility  of  a  hen  decreases  with  age,  until  at  length  she  may 
become  entirely  barren.  By  the  same  law,  the  fecundity  of 
the  queen-bee  ordinarily  diminishes  after  she  has  entered  her 
third  year.  An  old  queen  sometimes  ceases  to  lay  worker- 
eggs;  the  contents  of  her  spermatlieca  becoming  exhausted, 
the  eggs  are  no  longer  impregnated,  and  produce  only  drones. 

The  queen-bee  usually  dies  of  old  age  m  her  fourth  year, 
although  she  has  been  known  to  live  longer.  There  is  great 
advantage,  therefore,  in  hives  which  allow  her,  when  she  has 
passed  the  period  of  her  greatest  fertility,  to  be  easily  re- 
moved. % 


The  AVorker-Bee. 

158.  The  workers  are  the  smallest  inhabitants  of  a  bee- 
hive, and  compose  the  bulk  of  the  pop- 
ulation. A  good  swarm  ought  to  contain 
at  least  20,000;  and  in  large  hives,  strong- 
colonies,  which  are  not  reduced  by  swarm- 
ing, frequently  number  three  or  four  times 
as  many  during  the  height  of  the  breeding 
season.  Fig.  25. 

159.  Their  functions  are  varied.  The  young  bees  work 
inside  of  the  hive,  prepare  and  distribute  the  food  to  the 
larvae,  take  care  of  the  queen,  by  brushing  her  A\dth  their 
tongues,  nurse  her,  maintain  the  heat  of  the  hive,  or  renew 
the  air  and  evaporate  the  newly-gathered  honey  (219),  by 
ventilating    (261,   366).       They  clean  the  hive  of   dirt  or 


68  PI1VSI0LU(JV    OF   THE    HON  tV-UHi:. 

debris,  close  up  all  the  cracks,  and  secrete  the  greater  part 
of  the  wax  which  is  produced  in  the  hive. 

The  old  bees  may,  if  necessaiy,  do  a  part  of  the  same  work; 
but,  as  we  have  seen,  (39),  old  age  renders  some  unfit  to 
prepare  the  food  of  the  larvae.  More  alert  than  the  young 
bees,  they  do  the  outside  work,  gather  honey  (24:<>),  pollen 
(263),  and  water  (271),  for  the  use  of  the  family,  and 
l)ropolis  (236)  to  cement  the  cracks. 

160.  ''Dzierzon  states  it  as  a  fact,  that  worker-bees  attend 
more  exclusively  to  the  domestic  concerns  of  the  colony  in  the 
early  period  of  life;  assuming  the  discharge  of  the  more  active 
out-door  duties  only  during  the  later  periods  of  their  existence. 
The  Italian  bees  (551  )  furnished  me  with  suitable  means  to 
test  the  correctness  of  this  opinion. 

' '  On  the  18th  of  April,  1855,  I  introduced  ( 533  )  an  Italian 
queen  into  a  colony  of  common  bees;  and  on  the  10th  of  May 
following,  the  first  Italian  workers  emerged  from  the  cells. 
On  the  ensuing  day,  they  emerged  in  great  numbers,  as  the  col- 
ony had  been  kept  in  good  condition  by  regular  and  plentiful 
feeding.  I  will  arrange  my  observations  under  the  following 
heads : 

161.  "1.  On  the  10th  of  May,  the  first  Italian  workers 
emerged;  and  on  the  17th  they  made  their  first  appearance  out- 
side of  the  hive.  On  the  next  day,  and  then  daily  till  the  29th, 
they  came  forth  about  noon,  disporting  in  front  of  the  hive,  in 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  They,  however,  manifestly,  did  not  issue 
for  the  purpose  of  gathering  honey  or  pollen,  for  during  that 
time  none  were  noticed  returning  with  pellets;  none  were  seen 
alighting  on  any  of  the  flowers  in  my  garden;  and  I  found  no 
honey  in  the  stomachs  of  such  as  I  caught  and  killed  for  exam- 
ination. The  gathering  was  done  exclusively  by  the  old  bees  of 
the  original  stock,  until  the  29th  of  May,  when  the  Italian  bees 
began  to  labor  in  that  vocation  also — being  then  19  days  old. 

162.  "2.  On  the  feeding  troughs  placed  in  my  garden,  and 
which  were  constantly  crowded  with  common  bees,  I  saw  no 
Italian  bees  till  the  27th  of  May,  seventeen  days  after  the  first 
had  emerged  from  the  cells. 

"From  the  lOtli  of  May  on,  I  daily  presented  to  Italian  bees, 
in  the  hive,  a  stick  dipped  in  honey.     The  younger  ones  never 


THE    WOKKER-BEE.  69 

attempted  to  lick  any  of  it;  the  older  oceasioually  seemed  to  si}' 
a  little,  but  immediately  left  it  and  moved  away.  The  common 
bees  always  eagerly  licked  it  up,  never  leaving  it  till  they  had 
filled  their  honey-bags.  Not  till  the  2oth  of  May  did  I  see  any 
Italian  bee  lick  up  honey  eagerly,  as  the  common  bees  did  from 
the  beginning. 

"These  repeated  observations  force  me  to  conclude  that,  dur- 
ing the  first  two  weeks  of  the  worker-bees 's  life,  the  impulse 
for  gathering  honey  and  pollen  does  not  exist,  or  at  least  is  not 
developed;  and  that  the  development  of  this  impulse  proceeds 
slowly  and  gradually.  At  first  the  young  bee  will  not  even 
touch  the  honey  presented  to  her;  some  days  later  she  will  sim- 
ply taste  it,  and  only  after  a  further  lapse  of  time  will  she  con- 
sume it  eagerly.  Two  weeks  elapse  before  she  readily  eats 
honey,  and  nearly  three  weeks  pass,  before  the  gathering  im- 
pulse is  suflSciently  developed  to  impel  her  to  fly  abroad,  and 
seek  for  honey  and  pollen  among  the  flowers. 

163.  "I  made,  further,  the  following  observations  respect- 
ing the  domestic  employments  of  the  young  Italian  bees: 

*'l.  On  the  20th  of  May,  I  took  out  of  the  hive  all  the  combs 
it  contained,  and  replaced  them  after  examination.  On  inspect- 
ing them  half  an  hour  later,  I  was  surprised  to  see  that  the 
edges  of  the  combs,  which  had  been  cut  on  removal,*  were  cov- 
ered by  Italian  bees  exclusively.  On  closer  examination,  I  found 
that  they  were  busily  engaged  in  re-attaching  the  combs  to  the 
sides  of  the  hive.  When  I  brushed  them  away,  they  instantly 
returned,  in  eager  haste,  to  resume  their  labors. 

' '  2.  After  making  the  foregoing  observations,  I  inserted  in 
the  hive  a  bar  from  which  a  comb  had  been  cut,  to  ascertain 
whether  the  rebuilding  of  comb  would  be  undertaken  by  the 
Italian  bees.  I  took  it  out  a  few  hours  subsequently,  and  found 
it  covered  almost  exclusively  by  Italian  workers,  though  the 
colony,  at  that  time,  still  contained  a  large  majority  of  com- 
mon bees.  I  saw  that  they  were  sedulously  engaged  in  build- 
ing comb;  and  they  prosecuted  the  work  unremittingly,  whilst 
I  held  the  bar  in  my  liand.     I  repeated  this  experiment  several 


*  Mr.  Donhoff,  the  writer  of  this  quctation,  used  the  Dzierzon  hive, 
the  combs  of  which  are  suspended  in  the  hive  by  an  upper  bar  only, 
and  cannot  be  taken  out  unless  their  edges,  that  are  built  against  the 
sides  of  the  hive,  are  cut. 


70  PHYSIOLOGY   OF  THE   HONEY-BEE. 

days  in  succession,  and  satisfied  myself  that  the  bees  engaged  in 
this  work  were  always  almost  exclusively  of  the  Italiaa  race. 
Many  of  them  had  scales  of  wax  visibly  protruding  between 
ili«  if  abdominal  rings    (  201).      These  observations  show  that, 


Fig.    2.J. 
HFAD   OF   WORKER-BEE. 

(Magnified.      After   Barbd.) 


in   the    early   stage    of   their   existence,   the    impulse    for   comb- 
building  is  stronger  than  later  in  life. 
164.     "3.  Whenever  I  examined  the  colony  during  the  first 


THE    WORKER-BEE.  ^-^ 

three  weeks  after  the  Italian  bees  emerged,  I  found  the  brood- 
combs  covered  principally  by  bees  of  that  race:  and  it  is,  hence, 
probable  that  the  brood  is  chiefly  attended  to  and  nursed  by  the 
younger  bees.  The  evidence,  however,  is  not  so  conclusive  as 
in  the  case  of  comb-building,  inasmuch  as  they  may  have  con- 
gregated on  the  brood-combs  because  these  are  warmer  than 
the  others. 

"I  may  add  another  interesting  observation.  The  faeces  in 
the  intestines  of  the  young  Italian  bees  was  viscid  and  yellow; 
that  of  the  common  or  old  bees  was  thin  and  limpid,  like  that 
of  the  queen-bee.  This  is  confirmatory  of  the  opinion,  that,  for 
the  production  of  wax  and  jelly,  the  bees  require  pollen;  but 
do  not  need  any  for  their  own  sustenance." — (B.  Z.,  ISfb,  p. 
163.     Dr.  Donhoff,  translated  by  the  late  S.  Wagner.) 

165.  There  are  none  but  gentlemen  of  leisure  in  the  com- 
monwealth of  bees,  but  assuredly  there  are  no  such  ladies, 
whether  of  high  or  low  degree.  The  queen 
herself  has  her  full  share  of  duties,  the 
royal  office  being  no  sinecure,  when  the 
mother  who  fills  it  must  daily  deposit  thou- 
sands of  eggs. 

' '  The    eggs    of    bees   are    of    a    lengthened, 
oval   shape   with    a   slight    curvature,   and   or       ^„      ^^^-  ^^• 

^  »  '  THE    EGG    IN    THE 

a    bluish    white    color:    being    besmeared,    at  cell. 

the    time    of    laying,    with    a    glutinous    sub-  ^^°'  ^ 

stance,  they  adhere  to  the  bases  of  the  cells,  and  remain  un- 
changed in  figure  or  situation  for  three  or  four  days;  they  are 
then  hatched,  the  bottom  of  each  cell  presenting  to  view  a  small 
white  worm." — (Bevan.) 

166.  For  the  first  three  days  after  their  hatching,  these 
worms  are  fed  with  a  jelly,  thought  to  be  prepared  or  secreted 
by  the  upper  pair  of  glands  of  the  worker-bees  (39),  which 
are  very  large  in  the  nurses.  This  milky  food  is  a  whitish, 
transparent  fluid,  and  is  distributed  to  the  larvae,  as  it  is 
needed.  After  four  or  perhaps  five  days,  the  larva  is  too 
large  for  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  where  it  was  coiled  up,  to 
use   the  language  of  Swammerdam,   like  a   dog  when  going 


72 


PHVSIOLO(;V    OK   TlIK    HONKV-P.KE. 


to  sleep;  and  stretches  itself  till  it  oeeupies  the  whole  length 
of  the  cell,  lying  on  its  back.  Its  food  at  this  time,  is 
changed  for  a  semi-digested  mixture  of  honey  and  pollen. 


Fig.    2.S. 
EGGS    AND    LARVA. 

(Magnified.      After    Barb6.) 


"The  mixture  of  honey  and  pollen  given  at  the  end  of  the 
nursing,  is  easily  detected  by  its  color,  which  is  yellower,  on  ac- 


THE   WORKEK-BEK. 


73 


Fig.    29. 

COILED    IN    THE    CELJ.. 

(Magnified.   Frcm  Sartor!   and  Rausch- 
enfels.) 


count  of  the  pollen,  and 
can  be  seen  through  the 
skin  of  the  larva. ' ' — 
(Dubini.) 

167.  "The  larva,  or 
grub,  grows  apace,  but 
not  without  experiene 
ing  a  difficulty  to  which 
the  human  famil}'  is^  in 
some  sort,  subject  in  the 
period  of  youth.  Its 
coat  is  inelastic  and  does  not  grow  with  the  wearer,  so  that  it 
soon,  fitting  badly,  has  to  be  thrown  off;  but,  happily  in  the 
case  of  the  larva,  a  new  and  larger  one  has  alreacl}'  been  formed 
beneath  it,  and  the  discarded  garment,  more  delicate  than  gos- 
samer, is  pushed  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell." — (Cheshire.) 

168.  ''The  nursing- 
bees  now  seal  over  the 
cell  with  a  light  brown 
cover,  externally  more 
or  less  convex  (the  cap 
of  a  drone-cell  being 
more  convex  than  that 
of  a  worker),  and  thus 
differing  from  that  of  a 
honey  -  cell,  which  i  > 
paler  and  somewhat  concave." — ("Bevan  on  the  Honey-Bee, ") 

The  cap  of  the  brood-cell  is  made  not  of  pure  Avax,  but 
of  a  mixture  of  bee-bread  and  wax;  and  appears  under  the 
microscope  to  be  full  of  fine  holes,  to  give  air  to  the  in- 
closed insect.  From  its  texture  and  shape  it  is  easily  thrust 
off  by  the  bee  when  maturej  whereas  if  it  consisted  wholly 
of  wax,  the  insect  would  either  perish  for  lack  of  air,  or  bo 
unable  to  force  its  way  into  the  world.  Both  the  material 
and  shape  of  the  lids  which  close  the  honey-cells  are  differ- 
ent :  they  are  of  pure  wax,  and  are  slightly  concave,  the  better 
to  resist  the  pressure  of  their  contents.  The  bees  sometimes 
neglect  to  cap  the  cells  of  some  of  the  brocd,  and  some  per- 
sons have  thought  that  this  brood  was  diseased,  but  it  hatches 


Fig.    .3n. 
STRETCHED    IX     THE     CELL. 

(  Magnified.) 


<4  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HOXEY-BEEi. 

all  the  same.  The  larva  is  no  sooner  perfectly  inclosed,  than  it 
begins  to  spin  a  cocoon  after  the  manner  of  the  silk-worm, 
and  Cheshire  teaches  us  that  it  does  not  encase  the  insect, 
but  is  only  at  the  mouth  of  the  cell,  "and  in  no  case  extends 
far  down  the  sides." 
To  return  to  Bevan : 

169.  ''When  it  has  undergone  this  change,  it  has  usually 
borne  the  name  of  nymph,  or  pupa.  It  has  now  attained  its  full 
growth,  and  the  large  amount  of  nutriment  which  it  has  taken 
serves  as  a  store  for  developing  the  perfect  insect. 

''The  working-bee  nymph  spins  its  cocoon  in  thirty-six  hours. 
After  passing  about  three  days  in  this  state  of  preparation  for  a 
new  existence,  it  gradually  undergoes  so  great  a  change  as  not 
to  wear  a  vestige  of  its  previous  form. ' ' 


Fig.  31. 

SPIXMXr,    OF    THE    COCOON    AND    TRANSFORMATION    INTO    NYMPH. 

(Magnified.      Frcm   Sartcri   and   Rau3chenfels.) 


170.  The  last  cast-off  skin  of  the  larva,  "which,  by  the 
creature's  movements  within  the  cell,  becomes  plastered  to 
the  walls  and  joins  the  cocoon  near  the  mouth  end"  (Chesh- 
ire), is  left  behind,  and  forms  a  clcsely-attaclied  and  exact 
lining  to  the  cell;  by  this  means  the  breeding-cells  become 
smaller,  and  their  partitions  stronger,  the  oftener  they  change 
their  tenants. 

So  thin  is  this  lining,  that  brood  combs  more  than  twenty 
years  old  have  been  found  to  raise  bees  apparently  as  large 
as  any  other  in  the  Apiaiy. 

lYl.  About  twenty-one  days  are  usually  required  for  the 
transformations  from  the  worker-egg  to  tlie  perfect  insect. 
But  the  time  may  be   shortened   or  lengthened   by  the  tem- 


THE    WORKER-BEE. 


perature,  or  the  conditions  of  the  colony.  Dzierzon  and  others 
wrote  that  a  Avorker-bee  can  hatch  in  nineteen  to  twentj^-one 
days.  Collin  says  nineteen  to  twenty-three.  That  the  brood 
can  remain  even  longer  before  hatching,  is  confirmed  by  the 


Fig.  32. 

NYMPH. 

(Magnified.     After  Barbo.) 

report  of  A.  Saunier,  in  the  South  of  France.  Having  de- 
prived a  hive  of  all  its  inhabitants,  he  found  bees,  hatching 
twentv-three  davs  aftei-wards,  that  had  not  even  been  sealed 


76  rnvsioLOGV  of  the  jioney-bee. 

ill  their  cells,  since  there  had  been  no  nurses  there  to  do  this 
work.  ("L'Apiculteur."  Paris,  1870.)  As  these  were  al- 
ready full-grown  larv£P,  when  the  hive  was  deprived  of  its 
bees,  they  must  have  been  twenty-seven  daj^s  old  when  hatch- 
ing. In  this  experiment,  the  heat  produced  by  the  larvae, 
coupled  Avith  that  of  the  atmosphere,  had  been  sufficient  to 
keep  them  alive  and  help  their  slow  development. 

We  have  often  noticed  the  brood  of  swarms,  that  had  de- 
serted their  hives,  still  alive  after  a  cold  night,  but  in  each 
case  its  development  was  delayed. 

172.  A  newly  hatched  worker,  like  a  newly  hatched  queen, 
is  easily  recognized  by  her  small  size,  her  pale  gray  color,  and 
her  weak  appearance.  After  a  few  days,  she  has  gi'own  con- 
siderably larger.  She  is  then  in  the  bloom  of  health;  her 
color  is  bright,  she  has  not  yet  lost  a  smgle  hair  of  the  down 
which  covers  her  body.  These  hairs  fall  gradually  from  age 
and  work,  and  sometimes  disappear  almost  entirel5^ 

173.  The  first  excursion  of  the  young  bee  out  of  the  hive 
takes  place  when  she  is  about  eight  daj\s  old  (160.)  The  dis- 
turbing of  the  colony,  or  the  lack  of  old  bees  ma^'  cause  them 
to  go  out  earlier. 

The  first  flight  of  j'oung  Avorker-bees  is  easily  remembered 
^^•llen  once  seen.  It  usually  takes  place  in  the  afternoon  of  a 
sunny  day.  They  first  walk  about  on  the  platform  in  a  hesi- 
tating manner  and  then  take  flight.  Their  humming,  and 
joyous  and  peaceable  circles  to  reconnoitre  the  location  of 
their  home,  recalls  to  memoiy  the  gay  playing  of  children 
in  front  of  the  school-house  door.  Their  second  trip  is  made 
about  a  week  after  the  first ;  it  is  then  that  they  bring  in 
their  first  load.  A  young  bee  commg  home  is  readily  recog- 
nized by  the  small  size  of  the  pollen  pellets  she  carries,  when 
compared  with  those  of  older  bees,  and  by  the  tunis  she  makes 
before  alighting. 

174.  The  Apiarist  should  become  acquainted  with  the 
l)ehavior  of  young  bees,  so  as  not  to  mistake  their  pleasant 
flight  for  the  restless  motions  of  robber-bees.   (664.) 

175.  Although  the  workers  are  females,  they  are  incapable 


THE    WOKKEK-BEE.  '  ' 

of  feeundalion    (108).     Yet  the  rudimental  ovaries  of  some 
of  them  contain  a  few  undeveloped  eggs  (fig.  33). 

176.  Occasionally  some  of  them  are  suflftciently  developed 
to  be  capable  of  laying  eggs;  but  these  eggs  always  produce 
drones.  Laying  workers  appear  only  when  a  colony  has  been 
(lueenless  for  some  time.  Huber  thought  that  fertile  workers 
were  reared  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  young  queens,  and 
that  they  received  some  of  the  peculiar  food,  or  jelly  on 
which  these  ciueens  are  fed.*  But  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  is  the  increase  of  the  milky  food,  given  lavishly  to  the 
larvae  in  the  first  stage  of  their  development,  during  a  good 
honey  flow,  which  enlarged  their  ovaries  (108),  and  that  the 
young  bees,  thus  raised,  having  no  more  larvas  to  nurse 
when  the  hive  has  suddenly  become  queen  less,  feed  each  other 
Avith  their  milky  food,  which  excites  their  laying,  as  it  does 
for  the  queens  (39).  The  number  of  drone-laying  worker^ 
is  sometimes  veiy  large  in  a  hopelessly  queenless  hive;  we 
have  seen  at  least  a  dozen  laying  on  the  same  comb.  Mr. 
Viallon,  a  noted  bee-keeper  of  Louisiana,  once  had  so  many 
in  one  queenless  colony,  that  he  was  able  to  send  several  dozen 
for  dissection  to  bee-keepers  in  this  countiy  and  Europe. 

177.  Some  persons  may  question  the  wisdom  of  Nature 
in  endowing  the  workers  with  the  means  of  lajdng  drone- 
eggs,  when  there  is  no  queen  in  the  colony  to  be  fecundated 
by  them.  But  Nature  does  nothing  without  purpose.  The 
main  cause  of  the  loss  of  the  queen,  when  there  is  no  brood 


*  An  extract  from  Huber's  preface  will  be  interesting  in  this  con- 
nection. After  speaking  cf  his  blindness,  and  praising  the  extraordinary 
taste  for  Natural  History,  of  his  assistant,  Burnens,  "who  was  born 
with  the  talents  of  an  observer,"  he  says  :  "Every  one  of  the  facts  I 
now  publish,  we  have  seen,  over  and  over  again,  during  the  period  cf 
eight  years,  which  we  have  employed  in  making  our  observations  en 
bees.  It  is  impossibls  to  form  a  just  idea  of  the  patience  and  skill 
with  which  Burnens  has  carried  out  the  experiments  which  I  am  about 
to  describe ;  he  has  often  watched  some  of  the  working-bees  of  our 
hives,  which  we  had  reason  to  think  fertile,  fcr  the  space  of  twenty- 
four  hours,  without  distraction  *  *  *  *  and  he  counted  fatigue 
and  pain  as  nothing,  compared  with  the  great  desire  he  felt  to  know 
the   results." 


(8 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 


fit  to  raise  others  (107j,  and  therefore,  no  hopes  of  survival 
for  the  colony,  is  usually  the  death  of  the  young  queen  in 
her  bridal  flight    (122).     At   some  seasons,  the   drones   are 


Fig.   33. 

COMPARATIVE     SIZE     OF     THE     OVARIES     OF     STERILE      AXD      DRONE -LAYING 
WORKERS. 

(Magnified.     After  Barbo.) 

scarce,  and  a  young  queen  may  be  compelled  to  make  several 
trips  before  she  finds  one.  If  she  gets  lost,  the  hive  having 
remained  queenless  for  at  least  eight  or  ten  days  (109),  the 


1?HE    WORKER-BEE. 


7d 


brood  is  too  old  to  be  used  to  raise  another,  and  the  colony 
is  doomed.  That  other  colonies  may  not  be  victims  of  similar 
accidents,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  drones.  Nature  endows 
this  worthless  colony  with  the  faculty  of  drone-raising. 

It  is  by  the  same  provision  of  Nature  that  mihealthy  trees, 
on  the  eve  of  death,  are  seen  covered  with  blossoms  and 
fruits.  They  make  the  strongest  efforts  to  save  their  race 
from  extinction,  and  perish  afterwards. 

178.  The  drone-laying  of  worker-bees  is  easily  discovered 
by  the  Apiarist.  Their  eggs  are  laid  without  order,  some  cells 
containing  grown  larvae,  or  sealed  pupae,  by  the  side  of  cells 
containing  eggs;  while  the  eggs  of  a  queen  are  veiy  regularly 


'   <.-*^,fS^^- 


Fig.   34. 

BROOD   FROM   DRONE -LAYING  WORKER. 

(Fcrty  Years  Amcng  the  Bees.) 
By  C.   C.   Miller. 

laid.  Huber  states  that  the  fertile  workers  prefer  large  cells 
in  which  to  deposit  their  drone  eggs,  resorting  to  small  ones 
only  when  unable  to  find  those  of  greater  diameter.  A  hive 
in  our  Apiary  having  much  worker-comb,  but  only  a  sm^l] 
piece  of  drone  size,  a  fertile  worker  filled  the  latter  so  entireij' 
with  eggs  that  some  of  the  cells  contained  three  or  four  each. 


so  PHYSiULOGV    OF   THE    liOXEY-bEE. 

179.  Sometimes  the  bees  do  not  seem  to  know  tliat  these 
eggs  are  drone-eggs,  and  in  their  eagerness  to  raise  a  queen, 
they  treat  some  of  them  as  such,  by  enlarging  their  cells  and 
feeding  them  on  special  food  (109).  The  poor  overfed 
drones,  thus  raised,  usually  perish  in  the  cell  (136).  The 
workers  soon  dwindle  away,  and  the  colony  perishes. 

180.  They  often  even  fail  to  raise  any  queen  from  brood, 
which  may  be  given  them  by  the  Apiarist,  unless  some  hatch- 
ing bees  are  gi\'en  at  the  same  time.  The  latter,  when  informed 
of  the  needs  of  the  colony,  usually  succeed  in  raising  a  queen. 
The  introduction  of  a  laying-queen  in  a  laying-worker  colony, 
is  the  best  remedy.   (533.) 

181.  The  bees  of  the  same  colony  understand  each  other 
vei'y  well  for  all  their  necessities,  and  they  work  with  an 
entrain  which  is  truly  admirable.  They  know  each  other, 
probably  by  smell,  for  it  is  veiy  rare  to  see  a  bee  of  the 
hive  treated  as  a  robber  (664).  They  never  use  their  sting 
except  to  defend  themselves,  when  hurt,  or  their  home,  when 
they  think  it  is  threatened. 

182.  Their  life  is  short,  but  their  age  depends  very  much 
upon  their  greater  or  less  exposure  to  injurious  influences, 
and  severe  labors.  Those  reared  in  the  Spring  and  early 
part  of  Summer,  upon  whom  the  heaviest  labors  of  the  hive 
devolve,  appear  to  live  not  more  than  thirty-live  days,  on  an 
average;  Avhile  those  bred  at  the  close  of  Summer,  and  early 
in  Autumn,  being  able  to  spend  a  large  pan  of  their  time 
in  repose,  attain  a  much  greater  age.  It  is  very  evident 
that  "the  bee"  (to  use  the  words  of  a  quaint  old  writer)  "is 
a  Summer  bird";  and  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  queen, 
none  live  to  be  a  year  old. 

If  an  Italian  queen  be  given,  in  the  working  season,  to  a 
hive  of  common  bees,  in  about  three  months  none  of  the 
latter  will  be  found  in  the  colony,  and  as  the  black  queen 
removed  has  left  eggs  in  the  cells,  w^iich  take  twenty-one  days 
to  hatch,  it  is  evident  that  the  bees  all  die  from  fatigue  or 
accident  in  the  remaining  seventy  days,  making  their  average 
life  thirty-five  days  in  the  worJcing  peai^on. 


THE    WORKER-BEE. 


81 


The  age  which  individuai  members  of  the  community  may 
attain,  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  of  the  colony.  Bees 
have  been  known  to  occupy  the  same  domicile  for  a  great 
number  of  years.  We  have  seen  flourishhig  colonies  more  than 
twenty  years  old;  the  Abbe  Delia  Rocca  speaks  of  some  over 
forty  years  old;  and  Stoche  says  that  he  saw  a  colony,  which 


Fig.    35. 

COMBS    OF    BROOD. 

(Fortj^  Years  Among   the    Bees.) 


he  was  assured  had  swaruied  annually  for  forty-six  years! 
Such  cases  have  led  to  the  erroneous  opinion,  that  bees  are 
a  long-lived  race.  But  this,  as  Dr.  Evans*  has  observed,  is 
just  as  wise  as  if  a  stranger,  contemplating  a  populous  city, 
and  personally  unacquainted  with  its  inhabitants, '  should,  on 
paying  it  a  second  visit,  many  j^ears  after,  and  finding  it 
equally  populous,  imagine  that  it  was  peopled  by  the  same 
individuals,  not  one  of  whom  might  then  be  living. 


*  Dr.   Evans  was   an   English  physician,   and   the   author  of   a  beauti- 
ful poom  on  bees. 


82  PHYSIOLOQY    OF   THE   HONEY-BEE. 

'Like  leaves  on  trees,  the  race  of  bees  is  found, 
Now  green  in  youth,  now  withering  on  the  ground. 
Another  race  the  Spring  or  Fall  supplies, 
They  droop  successive,  and  successive  rise. ' ' '  — Evans. 

Apiarists,  unaware  of  the  brevity  of  the  bee's  life,  have 
often  constructed  huge  '^bee-palaces"  and  large  closets,  vainly 
imagining-  that  the  bees  would  fill  them,  being  unable  to  see 
any  reason  why  a  colony  should  not  increase  until  it  numbers 
its  inhabitants  by  millions  or  billions.  But  as  the  bees  can 
never  at  one  time  equal,  still  less  exceed,  the  number  which 
the  queen  is  capable  of  producing  in  a  season,  these  spacious 
dwellings  have  always  an  abmidance  of  spare  room.  It  seems 
strange  that  men  can  be  thus  deceived,  when  often  in  their 
own  ajDiaiy  thej^  have  healthy  stocks,  which,  though  they  have 
not  swarmed  for  a  year  or  more,  are  no  more  populous  in  the 
Spring,  than  those  which  have  regular!}'  parted  with  vigor- 
ous colonies, 

183.  There  is  something  cruel  in  the  habits  of  the  bee. 
Whenever  one  of  them  becomes  miable  to  work  from  some 
cause  or  other,  if  she  does  not  perish  in  her  efforts  to  go  to 
the  fields,  the  other  bees  drag  her  out  pitilessly ;  their  love 
benig  concentrated  on  the  whole  family,  not  on  a  single 
individual.  Yet,  when  one  is  hurt,  and  complains,  hundreds 
of  others  resent  the  injuiy  and  are  ready  to  avenge  her. 

184.  Notched  and  ragged  wings  and  shiny  bodies,  in- 
stead of  gray  hairs  and  Avrinkled  faces,  are  the  signs  of  old 
age  in  the  bee,  indicating  that  its  season  of  toil  will  soon  be 
over.  They  apjDcar  to  die  rather  suddenly;  and  often  spend 
their  last  clays,  and  even  their  last  hours,  in  useful  labors. 

Place  yourself  before  a  hive,  and  see  the  indefatigable 
energy  of  tliese  industrious  veterans,  toiling  along  with  their 
heavy  burdens,  side  by  side  with  their  more  youthful  com- 
peers, and  then  judge  if,  while  qualified  for  useful  labor,  you 
ought  ever  to  surrender  yourself  to  slothful  indulgence. 

Let  the  cheerful  hum  of  their  busy  old  age  inspire  you  with 
better  resolutions,  and  teach  you  how  much  nobler  it  is  to  die 
with  harness  on,  in  the  active  discharge  of  the  duties  of  life. 


THE    DKOXE.  83 


The  Drones. 

185.  The  drones  are  the  male  bees.  They  are  much 
larger  and  stouter  than  either  the  queen  or  workers;  although 
their  bodies  are  not  quite  so  long 
as  that  of  the  queen.  They  have 
no  sting  (78)  with  which  to  de- 
fend themselves,  and  no  suitable 
proboscis  (1:8)  for  gathering 
honey  from  the  flowers,  no  baskets 
on  their  thighs  (59)  for  holding 
bee-bread,  and  no   pouclies    (201) 

on  their  abdomens  for  secreting  wax.  They  are,  therefore, 
physically  disqualified  for  the  ordinaiy  work  of  the  hive.  Their 
proper  office  is  to  impregnate  the  young  queens. 

''Their  short  proboscis  sips 
No  luscious  nectar  from  the  wild  thyme's  lips, 
From  the  lime's  leaf  no  amber  drops  they  steal, 
Nor  bear  their  groovelcss  thighs  the  foodful  meal: 
On  other's  toils  in  pamper 'd  leisure  tlmve 
The   lazy  fathers   of   the   industrious  hive." 

— Evans. 

186.  The  drones  begin  to  make  their  appearance  in  April 
or  May;  earlier  or  later,  according  to  the  forwardness  of 
the  season,  and  the  strength  of  the  colony.  Like  the  other 
inhabitants  of  the  hive  they  cannot  perform  the  work  for 
which  they  are  intended,  till  at  least  one  week  old.  They 
go  out  of  the  hives  only  when  the  weather  is  warm,  and  at 
mid-day. 

187.  As  Ave  have  seen  (122),  the  mating  of  the  queen 
with  a  drone  always  takes  place  in  the  air.  Physiologists 
say  that  it  cannot  be  othenvise,  because  the  sexual  organs 
of  the  drone  cannot  be  extruded  unless  his  abdomen  is  swelled 
by  the  filling  of  all  the  tracheas  with  air.  This  happens  only 
in  swift  flight  (74). 


84  I'liVSlULUUY    OF    THE    llOXEV-BEE. 

Dzierzuii  supposes  that  the  sound  of  the  (jueeii's  wingS; 
when  she  is  m  the  air,  excites  the  drones.  Evidently  tiieir 
eyes  (11)  and  ears  (25)  which  are  highly  developed,  as 
proven  by  Cheshire,  help  them  also  in  the  search  of  the 
queen,  which  is  their  sole  occupation,  when  m  the  field.  In 
the  interior  of  the  hive,  they  are  never  seen  to  notice  her; 
so  that  she  is  not  molested,  even  if  thousands  are  members 
of  the  same  colony  with  herself.  But  outside  of  the  hive, 
they  readily  follow  her,  led,  according  to  Dzierzon,  by  the 
peculiar  hum  of  her  flight,  and  certainly  also,  by  the  senses 
of  smell  and  of  sight,  which  are  more  perfect  than  those  of 
the  worker,  most  likely  for  this  single  purpose. 

"When  the  queen  flies  abroad,  the  fleetest  drone  is  more 
likely  to  succeed  in  his  addresses  than  another,  and  thus  he  im- 
presses upon  posterity  some  part  of  his  own  superior  activity 
and  energy.  The  slow  and  weak  in  the  race  die  without  heirs, 
so  that  the  survival  of  the  fittest  is  not  an  accident,  but  a  pre- 
determination. In  previous  chapters  we  have  considered  his 
highly-developed  eyes,  meeting  at  the  vertex  of  his  head,  his 
multitudinous  smell-hollows,  and  his  strong  large  wings,  the  ad- 
vantage of  which  now  appears  in  a  clearer  light;  his  C[uickness 
in  discovering  a  mate,  whose  neighborhood  is  to  him  filled  with 
irresistible  odours,  and  his  ability  in  keeping  her  in  view  dur- 
ing pursuit,  are  no  less  helpful  to  his  purpose  than  fleetness  on 
the  wing.  .  .  .  " — (Cheshire.) 

188.  The  drone  perishes  iu  the  acl  of  impregnating  the 
queen.  Although,  when  cut  into  two  pieces,  each  i)iece  will 
retain  its  vitality  for  a  long  time,  Ave  accidentally  ascertained, 
in  the  Summer  of  1852,  that  if  his  abdomen  is  gently  pressed, 
and  sometimes  if  several  are  closely  held  in  the  warm  hand, 
the  male  organ  will  often  be  permanently  extruded,  with  a 
motion  very  like  the  popping  of  roasted  pop-corn ;  and  the 
insect,  with  a  shiver,  will  curl  up  and  die,  as  quickly  as  if 
blasted  with  the  lightning's  stroke.  This  singular  provision 
is  unquestionably  intended  to  give  additional  security  to  the 
queen  when  she  leaves  her  hive  to  have  intercourse  with  the 
drone.    Iluber  first  discovered  that  she  returned  with  the  male 


THE   DKOXE. 


85 


organ  torn  from  the  drone,  and  still  adhering-  to  her  body.  If 
it  were  not  for  this  arrangement,  her  spennatheca  could  not 
be  filled,  unless  she  remained  so  long  in  the  air  with  the  drone, 
as  to  incur  a  veiy  great  risk  of  being  devoured  by  birds.  In 
one  instance,  seme  days  after  the  impregnation  of  a  queen,  we 
found  the  male  organ,  in  a  dried  state,  adhering  so  firmly  to 
her  body,  that  it  could  not  be  removed  without  teanng  her  to 
pieces. 


Fig.   37. 
HEAD    OF    DROXE. 

(Magnified.     After  Barbo.) 

181).  The  number  of  drones  in  a  hive  is  often  veiy  great, 
amounting  not  merely  to  hundi-eds,  but  sometimes  to  thousands. 
As  a  single  one  will  impregnate  a  queen  for  life,  it  would 
seem  that  only  a  few  should  be  reared.  But  as  sexual  inter- 
course always  takes  place  high  up  in  the  air,  the  young  queens 


36 


PHVSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HONEY-BEE. 


must  necessarily  leave  the  hive;  and  it  is  very  important  to 
their  safety  that  they  should  be  sure  to  find  a  drone  without 
being  compelled  to  make  frequent  excursions ;  for  being  larger 
than  workers,  and  less  active  on  the  wing,  queens  are  more 


Fig.  38. 
SEXUAL  ORGANS  OF  DRONE. 

(Magnified.     After  Barbd.) 

a,a,  testicles;   b,b,  mucous  glands;  c,  seminal  duct;  d,  part  in  which 
the'spermatophore  is  formed;   e,  hollow  horns  and  penis. 


THE   DRONE. 


^7 


exposed  to  be  caught  by  birds,  or  destroyed  by  sudden  gusts 
of  wind. 

In  a  large  Apiaiy,  a  few  drones  in  each  hive,  or  the  num- 
ber usually  found  in  one,  would  suffice.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances bees  are  not  in  a  state  of  nature,  like  a  colony 
living  in  a  forest,  which  often  has  no  neighbors  for  miles. 


Fig    39. 

PENIS    AND     SPERMATOZOIDS. 

(Much  magnified.     After  Barbo.) 


88  I'llVSlOLOCV    OF    THE    ilUNKV-DKt:. 

A  good  colony,  even  in  our  climate,  sometimes  sends  out 
three  or  more  swarms,  and  in  the  tro])ical  climates,  of  which 
the  bee  is  probably  a  native,  they  increase  Avith  astonishing- 
rapidity.  Every  new  swarm,  except  the  first,  is  led  oft  by  a 
young-  queen ;  and  as  she  is  never  impregnated  until  she  has 
been  established  as  the  head  of  a  separate  family,  it  is  im- 
portant that  each  should  be  accompanied  by  a  goodly  number 
of  drones;  this  requires  the  production  of  a  large  number 
in  the  parent-hive. 

190.  This  necessity  no  longer  exists  when  the  bee  is  do- 
mesticated, smce  several  colonies  are  kept  in  the  same  place, 
and  the  breeding  of  so  many  drones  should  be  discouraged. 
Their  brood  takes  useful  space  that  might  as  well  be  occupied 
with  worker-brood.  One  thousand  good-for-nothing-  drones 
take  up  as  much  breeding-space  as  fifteen  hundred  workers 
(224:),  and  require  as  much  food,  with  negative  results.  Some 
hives,  m  a  state  of  nature,  produce  so  many  drones  that  a 
great  part  of  the  surplus  crop  is  disposed  of  by  these  vora- 
cious loafers.  Besides,  the  comparatively  large  volume  of  the 
mate  organs,  in  connection  with  the  gluttony  of  the  drones, 
explains  why  they  usualh^  void  their  dejections  in  the  hive, 
while  workers  retain  them  till  they  are  on  the  wing  (Y3),  and 
why  the  cells  of  the  combs  of  hives  which  have  a  large  <iuantity 
of  these  gormands,  become  dark  and  thick  sooner  than  the 
others. 

The  importance  of  preventing  the  over-production  of  drones 
has  been  corroborated  by  the  discoveiy  of  Mr.  P.  J.  Mahan, 
that  those  leaving  the  hive  have  cjuite  a  large  drop  of  honey 
in  theii;  stomachs— while  those  returning  from  their  pleasure 
excursions,  having  digested  their  dinners,  are  prepared  for  a 
new  supply  (600). 

Aristotle  (''History  of  Animals,"  Book  IX,  Chap.  XI) 
speaks  of  the  irregular  and  thick  combs  built  Iw  some  colonies, 
and  the  superabundance  of  drones  issuing  from  them.  He 
describes  their  excursions  as  follows : 

"The  drones,  when  they  go  abroad,  rise  into  the  air  with  a 
circular  flight,  as  though  to  tako  violent  oxerfiso.  niid  wlion  they 


THE  KKuxt:. 


89 


have    taken    enough,   return    liome.   and   gorge   themselves   with 
honey. ' ' 

''The  drone,"  says  quaint  old  Butler  (1609)  "is  a  gross, 
stingless  bee,  that  spendeth  his  time  in  gluttony  and  idleness. 
For  howsoever  he  brave  it  with  his  round  velvet  cap,  his  side 
gown,  his  full  paunch,  and  his  loud. voice,  yet  is  he  but  an  idle 
companion,  living  by  the  sweat  of  others'  brows.  He  worketh 
not  at  all;  either  at  home  or  abroad,  and  yet  spendeth  as  much 
as  two  laborers:  you  shall  never  find  his  maw  without  a  drop 
of  the  purest  nectar.  In  the  heat  of  the  day  he  flieth  abroad, 
aloft  and  about,  and  that  with  no  small  noise,  as  though  he 
would  do  some  great  act;  but  it  is  only  for  his  pleasure,  and  to 
get  him  a  stomach,  and  then  returns  he  presently  to  his  cheer." 

191.     The  bee-keepers  in  Aristotle's  time  were  in  the  habit 

of  destroying-  the  excesr 
of  drones.  They  ex- 
clnded  them  from  the 
h  i  v  e — when  taking 
their  accustomed  airing 
— by  contracting  tlie 
entrances  with  a  kind 
of  basket  work, 
recommends  a 
trap,  which  he  calls  a 
'UJ  rone -pot." 
One  of  the  modem  inventions  to  destroy  them  is  Alley's 
drone-trap*  improved  by  J.  A.  Batchelder;  but  it  is  much 
better  to  save  the  bees  the  labor  and  expense  of  rearing  such 
a  host  of  useless  consumers.  This  can  readily  be  done,  when 
we  have  the  control  of  the  combs ;  for,  by  removing  the  idrone- 
comb,  and  supplying  its  place  with  worker-cells,  the  over- 
production of  drones  may  be  easily  prevented.  Those  who 
object  to  this,  as  interfering  with  nature,  should  remember 
that  the  bee  is  not  in  a  state  of  nature;  and  that  the  same 
objection  might,  with  equal  force,  be  urged  against  killing  off 


Fig.    40. 
alley's  droxe-trap. 


Butler 
similar 


*  The  perforated  zinc,  used  in  drone-traps,  which  we  think  was  in- 
vented by  Collin.  ("Guide."  p.  3.  Paris,  1865),  is  so  cut,  that  neither 
queen  nor  drone  but  only  the  worker  bee  can  pass  through   its  opening. 


§()  PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   HONEY-BEE. 

or  castrating  the  supernumerary  males  of  our  domestic  ani- 
mals. 

192.  Soon  after  the  harvest  is  over,  or  if  there  is  a  lull 
in  the  yield  of  honey,  the  drones  are  expelled  from  the  hive. 
The  worker-bees  sting  them,  or  gnaw  the  roots  of  their  wings, 
so  that  when  driven  from  the  hive,  they  cannot  return.  If 
not  ejected  in  either  of  these  summaiy  ways,  they  are  so  per- 
secuted and  starved,  that  they  soon  perish.  At  such  times  they 
often  retreat  from  the  comb,  and  keep  by  themselves  upon  the 
sides  or  bottom-board  of  the  hive.  The  hatred  of  the  bees 
extends  even  to  the  unhatched  young,  which  are  mercilessly 
pulled  from  the  cells  and  destroj'ed  with  the  rest. 

Healthy  colonies  almost  always  destroy  the  drones,  as  soon 
as  forage  becomes  scarce.  In  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia, 
there  were  only  a  few  days  in  June,  1858,  when  it  did  not 
rain,  and  in  that  month  the  drones  were  destroyed  in  most 
of  the  hives.  When  the  weather  became  more  propitious, 
others  were  bred  to  take  their  place.  In  seasons  when  the 
honey-hars'est  has  been  abundant  and  long  protracted,  we 
have  knoAvn  the  drones  to  be  retained,  in  Northern  Massa- 
chusetts, until  the  1st  of  November.  If  bees  could  gather 
honey  and  could  swarm  the  whole  year,  the  drones  would 
probably  die  a  natural  death. 

How  wonderful  that  instinct  which,  when  there  is  no  longer 
any  occasion  for  their  services,  impels  the  bees  to  destroy 
those  members  of  the  colony  reared  with  such  devoted  atten- 
tion ! 

193.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  actions  of  the  drones 
when  they  are  excluded  from  the  hive.  For  a  while  they 
eagerly  search  for  a  wider  entrance,  or  strive  to  force  their 
bulky  bodies  through  the  narrow  gateway.  Finding  this  to 
be  in  vain,  they  solicit  honey  from  the  workers,  and  when 
lefresh^d,  renew  their  efforts  for  admission,  expressing,  all 
the  while,  with  plaintive  notes,  their  deep  sense  of  such  a 
cruel  exclusion.  The  bee-keeper,  however,  is  deaf  to  their 
entreaties;  it  is  better  for  him  that  they  should  stay  without, 
and  better  for  them— if  they  only  knew  it— to  perish  by  his 


THE    DRONE.  PI 

hands,  than  to  be  starved  or  butchered  by  the  unfeelmg  work- 
ers. Towards  dark,  or  early  in  the  mommg— when  chistered, 
for  warmth,  in  the  portico — they  may  be  brushed  into  a  vessel 
of  water,  and  given  to  chickens,  which  will  soon  learn  to  de- 
vour them. 

194.  Drones  are  sometimes  raised  in  worker-cells  (150). 
They  are  smaller  in  size,  but  apparently  as  perfect  as  the 
full-size  drones,  all  their  organs  being  well  developed. 

For  the  stages  of  development  of  drones,  see  the  compara- 
tive table  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  (197). 

195.  AYe  have  repeatedly  queried,  why  impregnation 
might  not  have  taken  j^lace  in  the  hive,  instead  of  in  the 
open  air.  A  few  dozen  drones  would  then  have  sufficed  for 
the  wants  of  any  colony,  even  if  it  swarmed,  as  in  warm 
climates,  half  a  dozen  times,  or  oftener,  in  the  same  season; 
and  the  young  queens  would  have  incurred  no  risks  by  leav- 
ing the  hive  for  fecundation. 

196.  If  a  farmer  persists  in  what  is  called  "breeding  in 
and  in,"  that  is,  without  changing  the  blood,  the  ultimate 
degeneracy  of  his  stock  is  the  consequence.*  This  law  extends, 
as  far  as  we  know,  to  all  animal  life,  man  himself  not  being 
exempt  from  its  influence.  Have  we  any  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  bee  is  an  exception/?  or  that  degeneracy  would  not 
ensue,  unless  some  provision  were  made  to  counteract  the  ten- 
dency to  "in-and-in  breeding f  If  fecundation  had  taken 
place. in  the  hive,  the  queen  would  have  been  impregnated  by 
drones  from  a  common  parent;  and  the  same  result  must 
have  taken  place  in  each  successive  generation^  until  the  whole 
species  would  eventually  have  "run  out."  By  the  present 
arrangement,  the  young  queens,  when  they  leave  the  hive, 
often  find  the  air  swarming  with  drones,  many  of  which. be- 
long to  other  colonies,  and  thus,  by  crossing  the  breed,  pro- 
vision is  constantly  made  to  prevent  deterioration. 


*  In  the  above,  Mr.  Lar.gstroth  refers  to  indiscriminate  breeding. 
In-and-in  breeding,  by  selection,  intensifies  certain  qualities,  such  as 
the  development  of  fat,  or  of  muscle,  but  it  also  intensifies  the  de- 
fects, generally  causing  a  decrease  of  \  itality  or  of  health   in  the  race. 


02 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    HOXEY-BEE. 


Exi)erieiice  lias  proved  that  impregnation  may  be  effected 
nut  only  when  there  are  no  drones  in  the  colon j^  of  the  young 
queen,  but  even  when  there  are  none  in  her  immediate  neigh- 
borhood. Intercourse  takes  place  veiy  high  in  the  air  (per- 
haps that  less  risk  may  be  mcurred  from  birds),  and  this 
favors  the  crossmg  of  stocks. 

197.  Comparative  Table  of  the  Normal  Duration  of 
THE  Bee's  Transformations  from  Eggs  to  \Yinged  Insects. 

Queen.  Worker.  Drone. 

Eggs    days         3  3  3 

Growth    of   larva *"  o'  2  G  GV2 

Spinning  of  cocoon "  1  2  iy2 

Period   of   rest '"  2  2  3 

Metamorphosis   into   pupa '■  1  1  1 

Duration  of  this  stage "  3\2  "  ^ 


Av.  time  from  egg  to  winged  insect 


IG 


21 


CHAPTER  IL 


THE  BUILDING  OF  BEES.  — COMB. 


198.  When  a  swarm  (J:06)  has  found  a  suitable  habita- 
tion, some  of  the  bees  clean  it  of  its  rubbish,  if  necessaiy, 
while  others,  at  once,  prepare  to  build  the  furniture,  which 
is  intended  as  cradles  for  the  young  bees,  and  as  a  store-room 
for  the  provisions,  and  is  called  comb. 

According'  to  Webster,   this  word  is  probably  taken   from 


Fig.   41. 

COMES    BUILT    UPWARDS. 


the  Anglo-Saxon  ''comb,"  which  means  a  hollow;   the  combs 
being  hoUoAv  structures,  with  exceedingly  light  Avails. 

199.     The  combs  are  usually  begun  at  the  highest  point  of 
the  hive  and  built  doA\iiwards,  yet,  when  some  breaking  hap- 

93 


94 


THE    BUILDING   OF   BEES. 


pens,  or  when  the  harvest  is  short  and  the  weather  is  cool, 
the  bees  sometimes  build  them  upwards;  but  they  are  far  from 
havmg  the  usual  regularity.  Combs  are  made  of  wax,  a 
natural  secretion  Avhich  is  produced  by  bees  somewhat  as  cattle 
produce  fat,  by  eating. 

200.  '  *  Wax  is  not   chemically  a  fat  or  glyceride,  yet  it  is 

nearly  allied  to  the  fats  in 
atomic  constitution,  and  the 
physiological  conditions  fa- 
voring the  formation  of  one 
are  curiously  similar  to 
those  aiding  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  other..  We  put 
our  poultry  up  to  fat  in  con- 
finement, with  partial  light, 
to  secure  bodily  inactivity, 
we  keep  warm  and  feed  highly.  Our  bees,  under  Nature's 
teaching,  put  themselves  up  to  yield  wax  under  conditions  so 
parallel,  that  the  suitability  of  the  fatting  coops  is  vindi- 
cated. ' ' — (Cheshire.) 

Yet  let  it  not  be  thought  that  beeswax  is  the  fat  of  the  bee, 
but  its  production  is  on  similar  lines. 

201.  If  they  remain  quietly  clustered  together,  when 
gorged  with  honey,  or  any 
liquid  sweet,  the  wax  is  se- 
creted in  the  shape  of  delicate 
scales  in  four  small  pouches, 
on  each  side  of  the  abdomen, 
of  worker-bees. 


Fig.  42. 

WAX     SCALES. 

(Magnified.) 


"These  scales,  of  an  irreg- 
ular pentagonal  shape,  are  so 
thin  and  light,  that  one  hun- 
dred of  them  hardly  weigh  as 
much  as  a  kernel  of  wheat." 
— (Dubiui,    "L'Ape.") 

202.     In  the  young  bees,  which  are  endowed  with  a  great 
appetite,  they  form,  probably,  without  their  knowledge,  dur- 


Fig.    43. 

SECRETION     OF    WAX     CCALES. 

(Magnified.) 
(Frcm    the  ''lUustrierte    Bienen- 
zeitung.") 


COMB. 


95 


ing  the  honey  season;  and  if  there  is  no  place  to  use  them, 
they  are  gathered  in  small  knots  here  and  there.  This  only 
happens  when  the  combs  are  entirely  filled  and  sealed.  It 
has  been  noticed,  most  especially,  in  hives  in  which  a  comb 
had  been  broken  down  by  heat.  (333.)  In  such  cases,  many 
of   the   bees    ooro-e   themselves   with    the   wastins^   honev,   and 


'^■' 

• 

i 

s 

^^hi^ 

^^^^ 

< 

i 

1 

fc 

^r 

'1 

IP^^^ 

^mm^ 

'*"' 

Fig.    44. 

THE    WAX-PEODUCIXG    ORGAN    OF    THE    WORKER. 

(Magnified.     After  Barbo.) 

cluster  on  the  outside,  until  the  heat  has  subsided,  and  the 
running  honey  has  been  gathered  up.  Scales  of  wax,  in  lumps, 
can  then  be  found  where  they  have  clustered. 

203.  Although  the  faculty  of  producing  wax  is  diminished 
ill  old  bees,  who  are  subject  to  the  natural  law  which  makes 
it  more  difficult  to  fatten  an  old  animal,  it  is  proved  that 
they  may  also  produce  small  scales  of  wax. 


96  THE    15U1LD1XG   OF   BEES. 

' '  During  the  active  storing  of  the  past  season,  especially  when 
comb  building  was  in  rapid  progress,  I  found  that  nearly  every 
bee  taken  from  the  flowers  contained  wax  scales  of  varying 
sizes  in  the  wax-pockets." — (A.  J.  Cook.) 

204.  The  first  condition  indispensable  for  bees  to  pro- 
duce wax,  is  to  have  the  stomach  well  filled. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  honey-gathering  and  comb- 
building  go  on  simultaneously ;  so  that  when  one  stops,  the 
other  ceases  also.  As  soon  as  the  honey  harvest  begins  to 
fail,  so  that  consumption  is  in  advance  of  production,  the 
bees  cease  to  build  new  comb,  even  though  large  portions  of 
their  hive  are  mifilled.  When  honey  no  longer  abounds  in  the 
fields,  it  is  wisely  ordered  that  they  should  not  consume,  in 
comb-building,  the  treasures  which  maj^  be  needed  for  Winter 
use.     What  safer  rule  could  have  been  given  them*? 

It  takes  about  twenty-four  hours  for  a  bee's  food  to  be- 
come transformed  into  wax. 

205.  "Having  filled  themselves  with  lioney,  they  gather  in 
chains;  not  in  a  single  group,  but  in  a  number  of  groups,  hang- 
ing in  a  parallel  curtain,  in  the  direction  of  the  comb  to  be 
couf^'tructed.  Thus  a  bee  clings  to  the  ceiiing  with  her  claws, 
or  the  sticky  rubber  of  her  feet,  her  posterior  limbs  hanging 
down;  another  bee  grapples  the  claws  of  these  posterior  feet, 
with  the  claws  of  her  anterior  limbs,  letting  her  hind  limbs 
hang  also,  to  be  grappled  by  a  third,  and  so  on,  till  the  first 
chain  meets  another,  and  both  united  form  an  arch,  top  down- 
ward. This  single  chain  becomes  compound  when  several  are 
in  the  same  line,  and  grouped  near  one  another." — (Sartori 
and   Rauscheufels,  "  L'Apicoltura  in  Italia,"   Milan,   1878.) 

206.1  "If  we  examine  the  bees  closely  during  the  season  of 
comb-building  and  honey-gathering,  we  shall  find  many  of  them 
with  the  wax  scales  protruding  between  the  rings  that  form  the 
body,  and  these  scales  are  either  picked  from  their  bodies,  or 
from  the  bottom  of  the  hive  or  honey  boxes  in  which  they  are 
building.  If  a  bee  is  obliged  to  carry  one  of  these  wax  scales 
but  a  short  distance,  he  takes  it  in  his  mandibles,  and  looks  as 
business-like  with  it  thus,  as  a  carpenter  with  a  board  on  his 
shoulder.     If  he  has  to  carry  it  from  the  bottom  of  the  honey- 

(1)     In  this  witty  quotation,  the   worker  ehouW  have  been  In  the  feminine 
and  not  in  the  inasculine, 


Platf  12. 


PPxOF.  A.  J.  COOK. 

Author  of  '•'Hie  Bcr-Kceper'fi  GiiUJc  " 
This    writer    is    mentioned    page?    C.    11,    39,    ,'>4,    96,    142.    200.   490,    507. 


COMB. 


97 


box,  he  takes  it  in  a  way  that  I  cannot  explain  any  better  than 
to  say  he  slips  it  under  his  chin,  in  the  mandibles  or  jaws. 
When  thus  equipped,  you  would  never  know  he  was  encumbered 
with  anything,  unless  it  chanced  to  slip  out,  when  he  will  very 
dexterously  tuck  it  back  with  one  of  his  forefeet.     The  little 


Fig.  45. 

COMB    BUILDERS. 

fFrom    Advanced    Bee    Culture.      By    W 


Z.    Hutchinson.) 


plate  of  wax  is  so  warm,  from  being  kept  under  his  chin,  as  to 
be  quite  soft  when  it  gets  back;  and  as.  he  takes  it  out,  and 
gives  it  a  pinch  against  the  comb  where  the  building  is  going 
on,  one  would  tiiink  he  might  stop  a  while  and  put  it  into  place; 
but  not  he;  for  off  he  scampers  and  twists  around  so  many  dif- 
ferent ways,  you  might  think  he  was  not  one  of  the  working 


9S  THE    BUILDIXG    OF   BEES. 

kiud  at  all.  Another  follows  after  hiin  sooner  or  later,  and 
gives  the  wax  a  pinch,  or  a  little  scraping  or  burnishing  with  his 
polished  mandibles,  then  another,  and  so  on,  and  the  sum  total 
of  all  these  manoeuvres  is  that  the  comb  seems  almost  to  grow 
out  of  nothing;  yet  no  bee  ever  makes  a  cell  himself,  and  no 
comb  building  is  ever  done  by  any  bee  while  standing  in  a 
cell;  neither  do  the  bees  ever  stand  in  rows  and  'excavate,'  or 
any  thing  of  the  kind. 

' '  The  finished  comb  is  the  result  of  the  united  efforts  of  the 
moving,  restless  mass,  and  the  great  mystery  is,  that  anything 
so  wonderful  can  ever  result  at  all,  from  such  a  mixed-up,  skip- 
ping-about  way  of  working,  as  they  seem  to  have. 

' '  When  the  cells  are  built  out  only  part  way,  they  are  filled 
with  honey  or  eggs,  and  the  length  is  increased  when  they  feel 
disposed,  or  'get  around  to  it,'  perhaps;  as  a  thick  rim  is  left 
around  the  upper  edge  of  the  cell,  they  have  the  material  at 
hand,  to  lengthen  it  at  any  time.  This  thick  rim  is  also  very 
necessary  to  give  the  bees  a  secure  foothold,  for  the  sides  of  the 
cells  are  so  thin,  they  would  be  very  apt  to  break  down  with 
even  the  light  weight  of  a  bee.  When  honey  is  coming  in  rap- 
idly, and  the  bees  are  crowded  for  room  to  store  it,  their 
eagerness  is  so  plainly  apparent,  as  they  push  the  work  along, 
that  they  fairly  seem  to  quiver  with  excitement;  but,  for  all 
that,  they  skip  about  from  one  cell  to  another  in  the  same 
way,  no  one  bee  working  in  the  same  spot  to  exceed  a  minute 
or  two,  at  the  very  outside.  Very  frequently,  after  one  has  bent 
a  piece  of  wax  a  certain  way,  the  next  tips  it  in  the  opposite 
flirection,  and  so  on  until  completion;  but  after  all  have  given 
it  a  twist  or  a  pull,  it  is  found  in  pretty  nearly  the  right  spot. 
As  near  as  I  can  discover,  they  moisten  the  thin  ribbons  of 
wax,  with  some  sort  of  fluid  or  saliva  (41).  As  the  bee  always 
preserves  the  thick  rib*  or  rim  of  the  comb  he  is  working,  the 
looker-on  would  suppose  he  was  making  the  walls  of  a  consid- 
erable thickness,  but  if  we  drive  him  away,  and  break  this 
rim,  we  will  find  that   his  mandibles   have   come   so   nearly  to- 


*  The  constant  preserving  cf  this  rib  or  heavy  edge  of  the  comb 
while  the  work  progresses,  explains  why  old  comb  lengthened  and 
sealed  with  new  wax,  sometimes  retains  a  part  of  its  dark  color 
throughout.  Some  of  the  old  wax  is  undoubtedly  mixed  with  the  new, 
ill  the  rrnstant   remodeling-  of  this  heavier  edpe.  till  the  pomb  is  sealed. 


COMB.  99 

gether,  that  the  wax  between  them,  beyoud  the  rim,  is  almost 
as  thin  as  a  tissue  paper." — (''A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture.") 

207.  It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  who  first  discovered 
these  scales  of  wax.  According  to  Mr.  S.  Wagner,  J,  A. 
Overbeck,  in  his  Glossarium  Melliturgium,  p.  89,  Bremen, 
1765,  claims  that  a  Hanoverian  pastor,  named  Herman  C. 
Honibostel,  described  them  in  the  Hamburg  Library,  about 
1745.  Mr.  L.  Stachelhausen  informed  us  that  they  were  men- 
tioned by  Martin  John  in  Ein  Neu  Bienenhuchel,  1691. 

They  were  also  discovered,  m  Germany,  by  a  farmer.  This 
discover^'  was  communicated  to  the  naturalist  Bonnet  by  Wil- 
lelmi,  under  the  date  of  Aug-ust  22,  1765.     (Huber.) 

In  1779,  Thos.  Wildman  had  noticed  the  scales  of  wax  on 
the  abdomen  of  the  workers;  and  he  was  so  thoroughly  con- 
vinced that  wax  was  secreted  from  honey,  that  he  recommended 
feeding  new  sw;arms,  when  the  weather  is  stormy,  that  they 
may  sooner  build  comb  for  the  eggs  of  the  queen. 

From  the  books  wi'itten  in  the  French  language,  it  seems 
that  it  was  Duchet,  who,  in  his  "Culture  des  Abeilles,"  printed 
in  Freiburg  in  1771,  wrote  first  that  beeswax  is  produced  from 
honey,  of  which  they  eat  a  large  quantitj',  "icliich  is  cooked  in 
their  bodies,  as  in  a  stove/'  increasing  thereby  the  waraith  of 
the  hive,  and  that  beeswax  '' exudes  out  of  this  stove''  through 
the  rings  of  their  body  which  are  near  the  corselet.  This  idea 
of  Duchet  led  Beaunier  to  examine  bees,  and  he  discovered 
that  they  produce,  at  one  time,  not  two  scales  of  wax  only, 
but  nine,  the  last  ring  having  seemed  to  produce  one.  He 
adds : 

208.  * '  To  employ  this  material,  bees  use  their  jaws,  their 
tongues,  and  their  antennae.  In  favorable  years  you  can  see 
a  great  quantity  of  these  pieces  of  wax  which  have  fallen  on 
the  bottom  of  the  hives." — ('^Traite  sur  1 'Education  des 
Abeilles,"  Vendome,  1808.) 

209.  TMien  bees  are  building  combs,  some  scales  of  wax 
are  often  found  on  the  bottom  board,  the  bees  having  been 
unable  to  use  them  before  they  became  too  tough.  Sometimes 
they  pick  them  up  afterwards  and  use  them ;  some  races  of 


100  THE    BUILDING    OF   BEES. 

bees,  the  Italian    (551),  for  instance,  often  use  also  pieces 
of  old  combs,  which  may  be  within  their  reach. 

The  comb,  thus  built,  is  easily  detected  on  account  of  its 
darker  color.  Queen-cells  (104)  seem  to  be  always  built  of 
particles,  taken  from  the  comb  on  which  they  hang,  and  are 
never  of  pure  wax. 

"Thus,  filtered  through  yon  flutterer's  folded  mail, 
Clings  the   cooled  wax,  and  hardens  to  a  scale. 
Swift,  at  the  well-known  call,  the  ready  train 
(For  not  a  buz  boon  Nature  breathes  in  vain) 
Spring  to  each  falling  flake,  and  bear  along 
Their   glossy  burdens  to   the  builder  throrg. 
These  with  sharp  sickle,  or  with  sharper  tooth. 
Pare   each   excrescence,  and   each  angle   smoothe, 
Till  now,  in  finish 'd  pride,  two  radiant  rows 
Of  snow  white  cells  one  mutual  base  disclose. 
Six  shining  panels  gird  each  polish 'd  round; 
The  door's  fine  rim,  with  waxen  fillet  bound; 
While  walls  so  thin,  with  sister  walls  combined. 
Weak  in  themselves,  a  sure  dependence  find. ' ' 

Evans. 

210.  The  cells  of  bees  are  found  to  fulfill  perfectly  the 
most  subtle  conditions  of  an  intricate  mathematical  problem. 

Let  it  be  required  to  find  what  shape  a  given  quantity  of 
matter  must  take,  in  order  to  have  the  greatest  capacity  and 
strength,  occupying,  at  the  same  time,  the  least  space  and  con- 
suming the  least  lahoi-  in  its  construction.  When  this  problem 
is  solved  by  the  most  refined  mathematical  processes,  .  the 
answer  is  the  hexagonal  or  six-sided  cell  of  the  honey-bee, 
with  its  three  four-sided  figures  at  the  base ! 

The  shape  of  these  figures  cannot  be  altered  ever  so  little, 
except  for  the  worse. 

211.  The  bottom  of  each  cell  is  formed  of  three  lozenges, 
the  latter  forming  one-third  of  the  base  of  three  opposite 
cells. 

"If  the  little  lozenge  plates  were  square,  we  should  have  the 
same  arrangement,  but  the  bottom  would  b*^  *.^  sharp  pointed 


COMB.  101 

as  it  were,  to  use  wax  with  the  best  economy,  or  to  best  ac- 
commodate the  body  of  the  infantile  bee.  Should  we,  on  the 
contrary,  make  the  lozenge  a  little  longer,  we  should  have  the 
bottom  of  the  cell  too  nearly  flat  to  use  wax  with  most  econ- 
omy, or  for  the  comfort  of  the  young  hee." — ("A  B  C  of  Bee 
Culture.") 

212.  *' There  are  only  three  possible  figures  of  the  cells," 
says  Dr.  Reid,  ''which  can  make  them  all  equal  and  similar, 
without  any  useless  spaces  between  them.  These  are  the  equi- 
lateral triangle,  the  square,  and  the  regular  hexagon.  It  is  well 
known  to  mathematicians,  that  there  is  not  a  fourth  way  pos- 
sible in  which  a  plane  may  be  cut  into  little  spaces  that  shall 
be  equal,  similar,  and  regular,  without  leaving  any  interstices. ' ' 

An  equilateral  triangle  would  have  been  impossible  for  an 
insect  with  a  round  body  to  build.  A  circle  seems  to  be  the 
best  shape  for  the  development  of  the  larvae ;  but  such  a  figure 
would  have  caused  a  needless  sacrifice  of  space,  materials,  and 
strength.  The  body  of  the  immature  insect,  as  it  undergoes 
its  changes,  is  charged  with  a  superabundance  of  moisture, 
which  passes  off  through  the  reticulated  cover  of  its  cell;  may 
not  a  hexagon,  therefore,  while  approaching  so  nearly  to  the 
shape  of  a  circle,  as  not  to  mcommode  the  young  bee,  fur- 
nish, in  its  six  comers,  the  necessary  vacancies  for  a  more 
thorough  ventilation  1 

Is  it  credible  that  these  little  insects  can  unite  so  many  re- 
quisites in  the  construction  of  their  cells! 

213.  The  fact  is  that  the  hexagonal  shape  of  the  cells  is 
naturally  produced,  and  without  any  calculation,  by  the  bee. 
She  wants  to  build  each  cell  round;  but  as  every  cell  touches 
the  next  ones,  and  as  she  does  not  wish  to  leave  any  space 
between,  each  one  of  the  cells  flattens  at  the  contact,  as  would 
soap  bubbles  if  all  of  the  same  diameter.  It  is  the  same  for 
the  lozenges  of  the  bottom.  The  bee,  wanting  the  bottom  of 
the  cell  concave  inside,  makes  it,  naturally,  convex  outside. 
As  this  convexity  projects  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  median 
line,  the  bee  who  builds  the  opposite  cells  begins,  naturally,  on 
the  tip  of  the  convexity,  the  walls  of  cells  just  begun,  since 


102  THE    BUILDING    OF    BEES. 

she  wants  also  to  make  tlieir  bottom  concave.  The  final  re- 
sult is  that  one-third  of  the  bottom  of  each  of  three  cells 
makes  the  bottom  of  the  one  cell  opposite,  and  each  one  of 
the  lozenges  is  flattened,  so  as  not  to  encroach  on  the  opposite 
cells. 

214.     The  cells  are  not  horizontal,  but  inclined  from  the 
orifice  to  the  bottom   (fig.  46),  so  as  to  be  filled  with  honey 

more  easily.  The  thickness  of 
worker-brood  comb  is  about 
one  inch,  with  cells  opening 
on  each  side.  The  distance 
between  combs  is  about  7-16 
of  an  mch.  This  space  is 
not  always  exact,  but  is  never 
under  5-16,  that  being  neces- 
sary for  the  bees  to  travel  be- 
tween the  combs  without  in- 
AND  SHAPE  OF  THE  BASE.  ^  tcrferiug    wlth    oue    another. 

These  distances  can  be  a  little 


Fig.    46. 
SHOWING    THE    SLOPE    OF   THE    CELLS 


(From   Sartori   and  Rauschenfels.) 


increased  without  troubling  the  bees,  and  we  place  the  combs 
in  our  hives  one  and  a  half  inches  from  center  to  center,  for 
easier  manipulation. 

215.  When  the  combs  are  newly  built,  they  are  white,  but 
they  get  color  shortly  afterguards,  especially  during  the  har- 
vest of  yellow  honey.  When  used  for  breeding,  the  cast  skins 
and  residues  from  the  larvae  (167)  give  them  a  dark  color, 
which  becomes  nearly  black  with  age,  especially  if  bees  have 
suffered  with  diarrhoea  (784).  or  raised  a  great  manv  drones. 
(190) 

As  wax  is  a  bad  conductor,  the  combs  aid  in  keeping  the 
bees  warm,  and  there  is  less  risk  of  the  honey  candying  in  the 
cells. 

216.  Is  the  size  of  the  cells  mathematically  exact?  When 
the  first  Republic  of  France  inaugurated  the  decimal  system 
of  weights  and  measures,  Reaumur  proj)osed  to  take  the  cells 
of  the  bees  as  a  standard  to  establish  the  basis  of  the  system, 
but  it  was  ascertained  that  cells  are  not  uniform  in  size. 


COM  I!. 


103 


217.  The  cells  in  which  workers  are  reared  are  the 
smallest.  Those  in  which  the"  drones  are  reared  are  larger. 
It  IS  generally  admitted  that  five  worker-cells  measure  about 
a  linear  inch,  or  twenty-five  cells  to  the  square  inch,  but  this  is 
incorrect.  If  five  Avorker-cells  measured  exactly  an  inch, 
the  number  contained  in  a  square  inch  would  be  about  twenty- 
nine.  As  they  are  usually  somewhat  larger,  the  average  num- 
ber in  a  square  inch  is  a  trifle  over  twenty-seven.  Drone-cells 
number  about  eighteen,  in  the  same  area. 


Fig.    47. 

WORKER     COMB     AXD     DRONE     COMB     WITH     CELLS     OF     ACCOMMODATION. 


L'Abbe  Collin  measured  the  average  dimensions  of  the  cells 
veiy  carefully,  and  the  measurements  given  in  his  work  (Paris, 
1865)  are  about  the  same  as  those  given  above. 

218.     The  queen-cells  have  already  been  described.    (104.) 

As  bees,   in   building  their  cells,   cannot  pass  immediately 

from  one  size  to  another,  they  display  an  admirable  sagacity 

in  makina"  the  transition  bv  a  set  of  irregular  intermediate 


104  THE    BUILDING    OF    BEES. 

cells.  Fig.  47  exhibits  an  accurate  and  beautiful  representa- 
tion of  comb,  drawn  for  this  work  from  nature,  by  M.  M. 
Tidd,  and  engraved  by  D.  T.  Smith,  both  of  Boston,  Mass. 
The  cells  are  of  the  size  of  nature.  The  large  ones  are  drone- 
cells,  and  the  small  ones,  worker-cells.  The  irregular,  five- 
sided  cells  between  them,  show  how  bees  pass  from  one  size 
to  another. 

Mr.  Cheshire,  in  his  book,  has  criticized  this  engi'aving,  on 
account  of  the  acuteness  of  the  cells  of  transition,  or  as  he 
terms  them,  of  accommodation.  He  writes:  ''The  head  of  a 
bee  could  not  reach  the  bottom  of  the  acute  angles  as  they  are 
represented."  Our  first  imprecsion,  on  readmg  the  criticism, 
was  that  Mr.  Cheshire  was  right.  Then  the  thought  that  Mr. 
Langstroth  had  his  engravings  made  from  nature  led  us  to 
inspect  some  combs,  when  we  found  several  cells  of  accom- 
modation with  angles  at  least  as  acute  as  m  the  cut.  But  we 
noticed  also  that  this  acuity  exists  only  on  the  rims  of  the  cells 
and  not  inside;  the  bees,  inside  the  cells,  having  pushed  out 
the  walls,  to  be  enabled  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  angles 
which  were  thus  rounded  inside.  Mr.  Langstroth  Avrote  to 
us,  in  regard  to  this  criticism  cf  Mr.  Cheshire:  "This  piece 
of  comb  was  actually  copied  from  nature  by  a  man  of  extraor- 
dinary accuracy." 

219.  The  combs  are  built  Avith  such  economy,  that  the 
entire  construction  of  a  hive  of  a  capacity  of  nine  gallons 
does  not  yield  more  than  two  pounds  of  beeswax  when  melted. 

According  to  Dr.  Donhoff,  the  thickness  of  the  sides  of  a 
cell  in  a  new  comb  is  only  the  one  hundred  and  eightieth  part 
of  an  inch !  Cheshire  states  that  he  found  some  that  measured 
only  the  four  hundredth  of  an  inch. 

220.  Most  Apiarists  before  Hubei-'s  time  supposed  that 
wax  was  made  from  pollen,  either  in  a  crude  or  digested  state. 
Confining  a  new  swarm  of  bees  to  a  hive  in  a  dark  and  cool 
room,  at  the  end  of  five  days  he  fomid  several  beautiful  white 
combs  in  their- tenement ;  these  being  taken  from  them,  and 
the  bees  supplied  with  honey  and  water,  new  combs  were  again 
constructed.  Seven  times  in  succession  their  combs  were  re- 
moved, and  were  in  each  instance  replaced,  tiie  bees  being  all 


COMB.  105 

the  time  jDrevented  from  ranging  the  fields  to  supply  them- 
selves with  pollen.  By  subsequent  experiments,  he  proved  that 
sugar-syrup  answered  the  same  end  with  honey.  Giving  an  im- 
prisoned swarm  an  abundance  of  fruit  and  pollen,  he  found 
that  they  subsisted  on  the  fruit,  but  refused  to  touch  the 
pollen;  and  that  no  combs  were  constructed,  nor  any  wax- 
scales  formed  in  their  pouches. 

Notwithstanding  Huber's  extreme  caution  and  unwearied 
patience  in  conductmg  these  experiments,  he  did  not  dis- 
cover the  whole  truth  on  this  important  subject.  Though  he 
demonstrated  that  bees  can  construct  comb  when  fed  honey 
or  sugar,  without  pollen,  and  that  they  cannot  make  it  if  fed 
pollen  without  honey  or  sugar,  he  did  not  prove  that  when 
permanently  deprived  of  it  they  can  continue  to  work  in  wax, 
or  if  they  can,  that  the  pollen  does  not  aid  in  its  elaboration. 

Some  pollen  is  always  found  in  the  stomach  of  wax-pro- 
ducing workers,  and  they  never  build  comb  so  rapidly  as  when 
they  have  free  access  to  this  article.  It  must,  therefore,  in 
some  way,  assist  the  bee  in  producing  it. 

221.  The  experiments  made  by  Berlepsch  show  that  bees, 
which  are  deprived  of  pollen  when  they  construct  combs,  con- 
sume from  sixteen  to  nineteen  pomids  of  honey  to  produce  a 
pound  of  comb,  while,  if  provided  with  it,  the  amount  of  honey 
is  reduced  to  ten  or  twelve  pounds.  If  the  experiment  is  con- 
tinued without  pollen  for  some  time,  the  bees  become  exhausted 
and  begin  to  perish.  It  is  therefore  demonstrated  that  although 
nitrogen,  which  is  one  of  the  elements  of  pollen,  does  not 
enter  into  the  composition  of  beeswax,  yet  it  is  indispensable 
as  food  to  sustain  the  strength  of  bees  during  their  work  in 
comb  making. 

222.  Honey  and  sugar  contain  by  weight  about  eight 
pounds  of  oxygen  to  one  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  When 
converted  into  wax,  these  proportions  are  remarkably  changed, 
the  wax  containing  only  one  pound  of  oxygen  to  more  than 
sixteen  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  Now  as  oxygen  is  the  grand 
supporter  of  animal  heat,  the  large  quantity  consumed  in 
secreting  wax  aids  in  generating  that  extraordinary  heat  which 
always  accompanies  comb-building,  and  which  enables  the  bees 


106  THE    BUILDING    OF   BEES. 

to  mould  the  softened  wax  into  such  exquisitely  delicate  and 
beautiful  fomiS;  This  interesting  instance  of  adaptation,  so 
clearly  pointing  to  the  Divine  Wisdom,  seems  to  have  escaped 
the  notice  of  previous  writers. 

223.  Careful  experiments  prove  that  from  seven  to  fifteen 
pounds  of  honey  are  usually  required  to  make  a  single  pound 
of  wax.  As  wax  is  an  animal  oil,  secreted  chiefly  from  honey, 
this  fact  will  not  appear  incredible  to  those  who  are  aware 
how  many  pounds  of  corn  or  hay  must  be  fed  to  cattle  to 
have  them  gain  a  single  pound  of  fat.  From  experiments 
made  by  Mr.  P.  Yiallon  here,  and  by  Mr.  De  Layens  in  France, 
it  seems  that  in  good  circumstances  bees  use  only  about  seven 
pounds  of  honey  to  produce  a  pound  of  wax.  But  the  actual 
cost  of  comb  to  the  bees  is  not  to  be  reckoned  only  by  the 
amount  of  honey  digested  by  them  to  produce  this  wax.  It 
must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  nearly  always  a  loss 
of  time,  in  comb-building,  since  the  bees  must  digest  the  honey 
before  the  wax  cells  are  formed.  As  stated  before,  comb 
building  and  honej'-  gathering  go  on  simultaneously,  but  when 
a  swarm  is  hived,  it  takes  quite  a  little  time  before  anj^ 
amount  of  comb  is  built,  and  in  the  meantime  the  harvest  is 
on  and  the  bees  that  have  to  build  comb  are  unable  to  take 
full  advantage  of  it. 

Many  bee-keejDers  are  unaware  of  the  value  of  empty  comb. 
Suppose  honey  to  be  worth  only  ten  cents  per  pomid,  and 
comb,  when  rendered  into  wax,  to  be  worth  thirty  cents,  the 
Apiarist  who  melts  a  pound  of  comb  loses  largely  by  the 
operation,  even  without  estimating  the  time  his  bees  have  con- 
sumed in  building  it.  It  is,  therefore,  considered  a  first  prin- 
ciple in  bee-culture  never  to  melt  good  worker-combs.  A 
strong  colony  of  bees,  in  the  height  of  the  honey-harvest,  will 
fill  them  with  veiy  great  rapidity. 

With  the  box  hives  (275),  but  little  use  can  be  made  of 
empty  comb,  but  by  the  use  of  movable  frames,  eveiy  good 
piece  of  worker-comb  may  be  given  to  the  bees  (574). 

224.  As  we  have  seen  before,  while  the  small  cells  are 
designated  as  worker-cells,  the  large  ones,  which  vary  greatly 
in  depth  and  are  more  especially  ])ro]iared  to  store  honey,  and 


COMB.  107 

ill  which  the  drones  are  raised,  are  known  as  store  or  drone- 
cells. 

225.  Generally,  bees  build  a  larger  number  of  worker 
than  of  store-cells;  yet  they  do  not  follow  any  regulation  as 
to  the  relative  proportion  in  the  quantity  of  each  kind.  Not 
two  colonies,  in  the  same  Apiaiy,  will  show  the  same  number 
of  large  cells,  even  when  the  hives  are  of  equal  capacity,  and 
even  if  the  building  was  done  in  circumstances  seemingly' 
identical.  You  will  find  a  colony  whose  comb  will  consist  of 
two-thirds  worker  and  one-third  store-cells,  the  adjacent  colony 
will  have  but  one-sixth  of  the  latter,  another  a  few  square 
inches  only.  In  a  hive  all  the  large  cells  are  together,  in 
another  they  are  scattered.  Some  of  these  drone-combs  are 
built  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  hive,  others  are  at  the  top 
only,  others  at  the  side,  or  at  the  bottom,  or  scattered,  etc. 

226.  These  facts,  not  explainable  by  themselves,  when 
added  to  the  wonderful  habits  of  bees,  have  led  to  the  theory 
that  it  was  with  foresight,  with  perfect  knowledge  and  for  a 
special  purpose,  that  bees  construct  such  a  varied  proportion 
of  the  two  kinds  of  cells.  Bees  are  represented  as  knowing 
the  sex  of  the  eggs  which  each  kind  of  cells  w411  receive;  and 
foreseeing  that  their  queen  may  not  live  long  and  that  the 
3'oung  queens  have  to  be  fecundated  (120),  they  build  large 
cells  in  which  drones  could  be  raised. 

227.  AYe  have  demonstrated  (213)  that  bees  construct 
their  cells  without  any  geometrical  calculation.  We  had 
previously  (142)  established  that  the  queen  does  not  know 
the  sex  of  the  eggs  she  is  laying,  and  although  regretting 
to  decrease  the  charm  with  which  bees  were  surrounded  by 
the  imagination  of  bee-keepers,  Ave  will  try  to  demonstrate 
that,  in  the  building  of  cells,  they  simply  follow  their  inclina- 
tion ;  as  do  all  other  beings,  in  the  acts  that  they  perform. 
But  we  have  first  to  put  forward  a  few  facts,  Avhich  are  gen- 
erally accepted,  on  Avhich  we  will  ground  our  reasoning. 

228.  1st,  A  swarm  (406),  hived  on  empty  frames,  always 
begins  its  constructions  by  worker  or  small  cells : 

2d,  If  the  queen  of  a  swarm  is  vers"  prolific,  veiy  little  of 
lar2:e,  or  store-comb,  will  2:enprallv  bo  l)uilf  bv  her  bees: 


108  THE    BUILDING    OF    BEES. 

3d,  If,  on  the  contrary,  from  old  age,  or  from  some  other 
cause,  the  fecundity  of  a  queen  is  deficient,  her  bees  will  fill 
the  hive  with  a  large  quantity  of  store-combs: 

itli,  If  the  queen  of  a  swarm  is  removed,  or  dies  while  the 
bees  are  building,  all  the  combs,  made  during  her  absence,  will 
consist  of  store-cells: 

5th,  If  all  or  part  of  the  store-combs  of  a  hive  are  removed, 
the  bees  will  rebuild  large  cells,  at  least  three  times  out  of 
four. 

229.  Besides  these  five  propositions,  we  will  remember 
that  queens  generally  prefer  to  lay  in  small  cells  (145),  and 
that  they  seem  to  know  how  to  ask  the  workers  to  narrow  the 
orifices  of  the  store-cells,  when  there  are  no  others  m  the  hive 
to  receive  their  impregnated  eggs  (146  to  148). 

We  have  to  remark  also  that,  while  the  queen  prefers  the 
narrow  cells,  the  workers  prefer  to  build  the  wide  ones,  since 
they  cease  to  construct  worker-cells  when  the  queen  is  gone, 
or  when  she  is  not  on  the  spot,  to  remind  them,  by  her  pres- 
ence, that  she  needs  narrow  cells  for  her  impregnated  eggs 
(146),  and  we  will  find  out  the  cause  of  such  differences,  in 
the  number  and  in  the  position  of  each  kind  of  combs,  by  fol- 
lowing the  work  of  the  bees,  in  some  of  the  circumstances  in 
which  they  may  have  to  build. 

230.  (a)  The  queen  of  a  swarm  is  very  prolific,  the  crop 
is  abundant,  and  the  building  goes  on  very  fast.  The  queen 
lays  in  all  the  cells,  as  soon  as  begun,  disputing  for  tiiem 
with  the  workers,  who  want  to  fill  them  with  honey.  As  she 
follows  the  builders,  waiting  for  cells,  no  large  cells  are  made. 
After  about  three  weeks,  the  bees  of  the  first  laid  eggs  begin 
to  leave  their  cells  (171) ;  the  queen  goes  back  to  fill  these 
empty  cells,  and  the  workers,  henceforth  free  from  restraint, 
follow  their  preferences  by  building  store-combs.  Result:  A 
few  large  cells,  placed  on  the  side  or  at  the  back  of  the  hive. 

231.  (b)  This  other  swarm  has  a  queen  as  prolific  as  the 
one  above.  For  two  weeks  she  follows  the  builders  as  the 
first  did,  laying  in  the  cells  as  soon  as  built.  But,  the  crop 
stopping  suddenly,  both  the  building  and  the  laying  slacken, 
when  only  two-thirds  of  the  constructions  are  made.     After 


COMB.  109 

three  weeks  of  scarcity,  abundance  comes  again,  and  the  build- 
ing is  resumed.  But  the  queen  is  no  longer  among  the  work- 
ers, waiting  for  cells;  she  is  at  the  other  end  of  the  hive, 
where  she  lays  in  the  cells  which  were  left  empty  when  the 
larvcD  that  they  harbored  were  bora.  Kesult :  About  one-third 
of  store-combs. 

233.  (c)  This  third  swarm  has  a  queen  whose  prolificness 
is  deficient,  yet  she  has  been  able  to  follow  the  builders  for  a 
few  days.  She  is  at  last  left  behmd,  and  the  workers  begin 
combs  with  large  cells.  On  reaching  these  cells,  one  or  two 
days  later,  she  passes  over  them  without  laymg  (149),  and 
rejoins  the  builders,  who  hasten  to  comply  with  her  desire  to 
have  worker-cells.  But  she  is  soon  left  behind  for  the  second 
time,  and  the  workers,  unrestrained  again,  build  large  cells 
till  she  again  rejoins  them,  to  be  again  left  behind,  and  so 
on.  Result:  Parts  of  store-combs  mixed,  here  and  there, 
with  worker-combs. 

233.  (d)  We  have  removed  from  a  hive  all  its  drone- 
combs;  but  as  the  queen  is  occupied  in  filling  empty  worker- 
cells  in  another  part  of  the  hive,  the  builders,  following  their 
preference,  reconstruct  large  cells,  thus  annulling  our  work  of 
removal. 

234.  (e)  We  have  given  one  or  two  combs  to  a  swarm 
as  soon  as  it  was  hived,  and  we  wonder  why  its  bees  have 
built  so  much  drone-comb.  The  cause  is  obvious:  the  queen, 
finding  empty  cells  to  fill,  remained  a  long  time  far  from  the 
Ijuilders,  who,  following  their  inclination,  constructed  drone- 
cells. 

235.  We  have  to  utilize  the  facts  just  enunciated.  If  we 
desire  to  prevent  a  swarm  from  building  too  many  store-combs, 
we  should  watch  the  builders,  and  remove  the  large  cells  as 
soon  as  built;  these  combs,  if  worth  saving,  may  be  used  in 
the  surplus  sections.  We  must  remember  that,  to  succeed,  it 
is  indispensable  that  no  other  cells  but  the  ones  to  be  rebuilt 
be  left  at  the  disposal  of  the  queen.  The  same  i-ule  applies 
also  to  the  removal  of  drone-combs  at  any  time;  and  as  the 
fulfilling  of  this  condition  is  not  always  possible,  it  is  better 
to  replace  the  removed  combs  with  worker  comD  or  comb  foun- 
dation (674). 


110  THE    liLILL)I\(i    OF    HKKS. 

The  above  rules  are  nut  without  exception,  for  unnoticed 
ciicunistanees  ma}'  have  some  influence  on  the  building  of 
combs;  but  we  think  that  we  have  stated  the  main  causes  of 
variation. 

Propolis. 

236.  This  substance,  which  is  used  by  the  bees  to  coat 
the  inside  of  the  bee-hive,  and  make  it  water  and  air  tight, 
is  obtained  from  the  resinous  buds  and  limbs  of  trees;  the 
dilferent  varieties  of  poplar  jdeld  a  rich  supply.  When  first 
gathered,  it  is  usually  of  a  bright  golden  color,  and  so  sticky 
that  the  bees  never  store  it  in  cells,  but  apnlv  it  at  once  to 
the  purposes  for  which  they  procured  it.  If  a  bee  is  caught 
while  bringing  in  a  load,  it  will  be  found  to  adhere  veiy  firmly 
to  her  legs. 

Huber  planted  in  Spring  some  branches  of  the  wild  pop- 
lar, before  the  leaves  were  developed,  and  placed  them  in  pots 
near  his  Apiary ;  the  bees  alighted  on  them,  separated  the  folds 
of  the  large  buds  with  their  forceps,  extracted  the  varnish  in 
threads,  and  loaded  with  it  first  one  thigh  and  then  the  other; 
for  they  convey  it  like  pollen,  from  one  leg  to  the  other. 
We  have  seen  them  thus  remove  the  warm  propolis  from  old 
bottom-boards  standing  in  the  sun. 

Propolis  is  frequently  gathered  from  the  alder,  horse- 
chestnut,  birch,  and  willow;  and  as  some  think,  from  pines 
and  other  trees  of  the  fir  kind.  Bees  will  often  enter  varnish- 
ing shops,  attracted  evidently  by  their  smell;  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Matamoras,  Mexico,  where  propolis  seems  to  be 
scarce,  we  saw  them  using  green  paint  from  window-blinds, 
and  pitch  from  the  rigging  of  a  vessel.  Bevan  mentions  the 
fact  of  their  carrying  off  a  composition  of  wax  and  turpen- 
tine from  the  trees  to  which  it  had  been  applied.  Dr.  Evans 
says  he  has  seen  them  collect  the  balsamic  varnish  which  coats 
the  young  blossom-buds  of  the  hollyhock,  and  has  known 
them  to  rest  at  least  ten  minutes  on  the  same  bud,  moulding 
the  balsam  with  their  fore-feet,  and  transferring  it  to  the 
liinder  less,  as  described  bv  Huber. 


l^kOPOLlS.  Ill 

*'With  merry  hum  the  Willow's  copse  they  scale, 
The  Fir's  Dark  pyramid,  or  Poplar  pale; 
Scoop   from   the   Alder's   leaf  its   oozy  flood, 
Or  strip  the   Chestnut's  resin-coated  bud; 
Skim  the  light  tear  that  tips  Narcissus'  ray. 
Or  round  the  Hollyhock's  hoar  fragrance  play; 
Then  waft  their  nut-brown  loads  exulting  home. 
That  form  a   fret -work  for  the   future  comb; 
Caulk  every  chink  where  rushing  winds  may  roar, 
And  seal  their  circling  ramparts  to  the  floor." 

Evans. 

237.  A  mixture  of  wax  and  propolis  being  much  more 
adhesive  than  wax  alone,  serves  admirably  to  strengthen  the 
attachments  of  the  combs  to  the  top  and  sides  of  the  hive. 
]f  the  combs  are  not  filled  with  honey  or  brood  soon  after 
they  are  built,  they  are  varnished  with  a  delicate  coating  of 
propolis,  which  adds  greatly  to  their  strength;  but  as  this 
natural  vaniish  impairs  their  snowy  whiteness,  the  bees  ought 
not  to  be  allowed  access  to  the  surplus  honey-receptacles,  ex- 
cept when  about  ready  to  store  them  with  honey.     (734.) 

238.  Bees  make  a  very  liberal  use  of  propolis  to  fill  any 
crevices  about  their  premises;  and  as  the  natural  summer- 
heat  of  the  hive  keeps  it  soft,  the  bee-moth  (802)  selects  it 
as  a  place  of  deposit  for  her  eggs.  Hives  ought,  therefore,  to 
be  made  of  lumber  entirely  free  from  cracks.  The  comers, 
which  the  bees  usuallj'  fill  with  jDropolis,  may  have  a  melted 
mixture  run  into  them,  consisting  of  th^ee  parts  of  resin  and 
one  of  beeswax;  this  remaining  hard  during  the  hottest 
weather,  will  bid  defiance  to  the  moth. 

239.  Bees  gather  propolis,  especiallj'  when  they  can  find 
neither  honey  nor  pollen  in  the  fields.  Thus,  during  the 
honey-erop,  veiy  little  of  it  is  taken.  In  some  countries,  they 
use  it  much  more  plentifully,  owing-  to  its  being  found  more 
readily. 

240.  Propolis  is  hard  and  brittle  in  the  Winter,  and  its 
use  by  the  bees,  to  glue  up  all  parts  of  the  hive,  has  created 
tlie  greatest  objection  to  drawers,  close-fitting  frames,  hinged 
doors,  etc.,  with  which  some  patent  hives  are  provided,  and 


112  THE    BUILDING    OF    BEES. 

which  become  entirely  immovable,  when  once  coated  with  it. 
It  is,  at  all  times,  the  greatest  hindrance  to  the  neat  handling 
of  the  combs,  and  in  warm  weather  daubs  the  hands  of  the 
Apiarist.  It  can  only  be  cleaned  from  the  fingers  by  the  use, 
in  place  of  soap,  of  a  few  drops  of  turpentine,  alcohol,  spirits 
of  hartshorn,  or  ether. 

To  clean  it  from  metal  surfaces,  use  steam  or  boiling  water 
strengthened  with  lye.  Scraping  is  necessary  to  remove  it 
from  smooth  wooden  surfaces. 

241.  Propolis  is  sometimes  put  io  ai  very  curious  use  by 
the  bees. 

'*A  snail,  having  crept  into  one  of  M.  Keaumur's  hives  early 
in  tlie  morning,  after  crawling  about  for  some  time,  adhered, 
by  means  of  its  own  slime,  to  one  of  the  glass  panes.  The  bees 
having  discovered  the  snail,  surrounded  it,  and  formed  a  border 
of  propolis  round  the  verge  of  its  shell,  and  fastened  it  so 
securely  to  the  glass  that  it  became  immovable." — (Bevan.) 

"Forever  closed  the  impenetrable  door; 
It  naught  avails  that  in  its  torpid  veins 
Year  after  year,  life's  loitering  spark  remains." 

Evans. 
"Maraldi,  another  eminent  Apiarist,  states  that  a  snail  with- 
out a  shell  having  entered  one  of  his  hives,  the  bees,  as  roon  as 
they  observed  it,  stung  it  to  death;  after  which,  being  unable 
to  dislodge  it,  they  covered  it  all  over  with  an  impervious  coat 
of  propolis." — (Bevan.) 

'Tor  soon  in  fearless  ire,  their  wonder  lost. 
Spring  fiercely  from  the  comb  the  indignant  host, 
Lay  the  pierced  monster  breathless  on  the  ground, 
And  clap  in  joy  their  victor  pinions  round: 
While   all  in  vain   concurrent  numbers  strive — 
To  heave  the  slime-girt  giant  from  the  hive — 
Sure  not  alone  by  force  instinctive  swayed. 
But  blest  with  reason's  soul-directing  aid. 
Alike  in  man  or  bee,  they  haste  to  pour, 
Thick,  hardening  as  it  falls,  the  flaky  shower; 
Embalmed  in  shroud  of  glue  the  mummy  lies, 
No  worms  invade,  no  foul  miasmas  rise." 

Evans. 


PROPOLIS.  113 

24^2.  In  these  instances,  who  can  withhold  his  admiration 
of  the  ingenuity  and  judgment  of  the  bees'?  In  the  first  case, 
a  troublesome  creature  gained  admission  to  the  hive,  which, 
from  its  unwieldiness,  they  could  not  remove,  and  which,  from 
the  impenetrability  of  its  shell,  they  could  not  destroy;  here, 
then,  their  only  source  was  to  deprive  it  of  locomotion,  and 
to  obviate  putrefaction;  both  which  objects  they  accomplished 
most  skillfully  and  securely,  and,  as  is  usual  with  these 
sagacious  creatures,  at  the  least  possible  expense  of  labor  and 
materials.  They  applied  their  cement  where  alone  it  was  re- 
quired—round the  verge  of  the  shell.  In  the  latter  case,  to 
obviate  the  evil  of  decay,  by  the  total  exclusion  of  air,  they 
were  obliged  to  be  more  lavish  in  the  use  of  their  embalming 
material,  and  to  case  over  the  "slime-girt  giant,"  so  as  to 
guard  themselves  from  his  noisome  smell.  What  means  more 
effectual  could  human  wisdom  have  devised,  under  similar  cir- 
cumstances ? 

243.  In  bygone  days,  it  was  a  prevalent  belief,  that  when 
any  member  of  a  family  died,  the  bees  knew  what  had  hap- 
pened; and  some  were  superstitious  enough  to  put  the  hives 
in  mourning,  to  pacify  their  sorrowing  occupants;  imagining 
that,  unless  this  was  done,  the  bees  would  never  afterwards 
prosper!  It  was  frequently  asserted  that  they  sometimes 
look  their  loss  so  much  to  heart,  as  to  alight  upon  the  coffin 
whenever  it  was  exposed.  A  clergyman  told  the  writer  that 
he  attended  a  funeral,  where,  as  soon  as  the  coffin  was  brought 
from  the  house,  the  bees  gathered  upon  it  so  as  to  excite  much 
alarm.  Some  years  after  this  occurrence,  being  engaged  in 
varnishing  a  table,  the  bees  alighted  upon  it  in  such  numbers, 
as  to  convmce  him,  that  love  of  varnish,  rather  than  sorrow 
or  respect  for  the  dead,  was  the  occasion  of  their  conduct 
at  the  fimeral.  How  many  superstitions,  believed  even  by  in- 
telligent persons,  might  be  as  easily  explained,  if  it  were  pos- 
sible to  ascertain  as  fully  all  the  facts  connected  with  them ! 

Whittier  has  written  a  little  poem.  "Telling  the  Bees," 
a  propos  of  their  knowing  of  some  one's  death. 


114  THE    DLILDIXG    OF    BEES. 

The  following  is  the  first  stanza  of  another  poem  by  one  of 
our  later  writers : 

"Out    of    the    house,    where    the    slumberer    lay, 
Grandfather    came    one   summer    day. 

And  under  the  pleasant  orchard  trees 

He  spake  this  wise  to  the  murmuring  bees: 
'The  clover  bloom  that  kissed  her  feet 

And  the  posey  bed  where  she  used  to  play 
Have  honey  store,  but  none  so  sweet 

As  ere  our  little  one  went  away. 
O  bees,  sing  soft,  and,  bees,  sing  low; 
For  she  is  gone  who  loved  you  so.'  " 

(Eugene  Field.) 

24:4.  Commercial  Uses  OF  Pkopolis. — "Dissolved  in  alcohol 
and  filtered,  it  is  used  as  a  varnish,  and  gives  a  polish  to  wood, 
and  a  golden  color  to  tin.  A  preparation  made  with  finely- 
ground  propolis,  gum  arable,  incense,  storax,  benzoin,  sugar, 
nitre,  and  charcoal,  in  quantities  varied  at  will,  is  moulded 
into  fumigating  cones,  for  perfuming  rooms  or  halls." — (Dubini, 
Mnan,  1881.) 

245.  The  foUowhig  letter  from  a  noted  Russian  Apiarist, 
to  Mr.  E.  Bertrand,  then  editor  of  the  Revue  Internationale 
(V  Apiculture,  will  be  found  of  interest: 

' '  During  my  pleasant  stay  at  your  pretty  villa,  I  spoke  to 
you  of  the  utilization  of  propolis  in  the  varnish  of  our  wooden 
ware,  which  resists  the  dissolving  power  of  hot  water  so  well. 
I  have  just  found  a  description  of  the  process,  and  will  com- 
municate   it    to    you. 

"Propolis  is  purchased  by  hucksters,  who  pay  five  copecks — a 
little  over  two  cents — and  sometimes  even  less,  for  permission 
to  scrape  or  plane  the  propolis  from  the  walls  of  a  hive  that 
lias  lost  its  bees.  The  shavings,  covered  with  propolis,  are 
heated,  put  into  a  wax-press,  and  subjected  to  the  treatment 
used  in  the  extraction  of  beeswax;  the  propolis  is  then  purified 
in  hot  water,  to  which  sulphuric  acid  is  added.  About  fifty 
T>er  cent,  of  propolis  is  thus  obtained,  which  sells  at  forty 
cents  per  pound. 


PROPOLIS.  115 

"This  propolis  is  poured  iuto  hot  liuseed-oil  and  beeswax,  in 
the  following  proportions:  Propolis  1,  beeswax  Vj,  oil  2.  Previ- 
ously, the  oil  should  'linger,'  as  we  say,  on  the  stove,  for  fif- 
teen or  twenty  days,  that  is,  remain  hot  without  boiling,  to  give 
it  the  property  of  drying.  The  wooden  ware  is  dipped  into 
the  above  mentioned  preparation,  and  must  remain  in  it  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes,  after  which  it  is  cooled,  and  rubbed  and 
polished  with  woolen  rags." — (A.  Zoubareff,  St.  Petersburg, 
Sept.  26,  1882.) 


CHAPTER  III. 


FOOD  OF  IIEKS.  — liOXEY. 


246.  The  main  food  of  bees  is  the  honey  or  nectar,  pro- 
duced by  plants  and  flowers.  That  honey  is  a  vegetable 
product  was  known  to  the  ancient  Jews,  one  of  whose  Rab- 
bins asks :  "Since  we  may  not  eat  bees,  which  are  unclean^  why 
are  we  allowed  to  eat  honey?"  and  replies:  "Because  bees  do 
not  make  honey,  but  only  gather  it  from  plants  and  flowers.'' 

247.  Yet  during-  its  sojourn  in  the  honey-sack,  the  nectar 
undergoes  a  chemical  change.  Most  of  its  cane-sugar,  or 
saccharose,  is  changed  into  grape-sugar,  or  glucose.*  This 
change  is  due  to  its  mixture  Avitli  the  saliva  of  the  glands, 
while  hi  the  honey-sack  (63).  "But  the  cane-sugar  yet  re- 
mains in  large  proportion  in  honey  gathered  on  the  moun- 
tains" (Girard),  —  or  when  it  is  gathered  very  fast. 

248.  The  nectar  is  produced  by  the  plants  in  nectariferoi:s 
tissues,  in  which  accumulations  of  sugar  can  be  found,  and 
exudes  most  frequently  through  small  apertures,  named 
stomato. 

249.  It  contains  more  or  less  water,  according  to  the  kind 
of  flowers,  and  the  conditions  in  which  it  is  produced.  Some 
flowers  give  nectar  which  is  almost  completely  deprived  of 
Avater.  Such  is  the  fuschia.  When  the  nectar  of  this  flower 
is  produced  in  veiy  dry  weather,  it  sometimes  ciystallizes  in 
the  blossom,  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  air. 

In  some  other  flowers,  as  in  the  Frit  ilia  ria  impcrialis,  the 
nectar  contains  as  much  as  ninety-five  per  cent  of  water.  But 
in  many  cases,  in  dry  weather  and  especially  in  late  honey 
crops,  the  nectar  contains  but  little  Avater.  Although  the 
honey  of  the  summer  crop  may  be  said  to  contain  from  sixty 

*  What  is  cliemically  known  as  glucose  should  not  be  confoundecl 
with  the  impure  glucose  of  commerce. 

IIG 


HOKEV. 


117 


to  eighty  per  cent  of  water,  there  are  many  late  plants  that 
give  honey  which  needs  little  evaporation.  The  honey  from 
heather  is  said  to  be  dififlcnlt  to  extract  from  the  combs  (Y4(>), 
owing  to  its  density. 

250.  The  quantity  of  nectar  produced  by  the  flowers 
decreases  during  drought,  and  increases  on  the  first  or  second 
day  after  a  rain.  But  it  is  then  more  watery.  In  some  sea- 
sons the  saccharine  juices  abound,  while  in  others  they  are  so 
deficient  that  bees  can  obtain  scarcely  any  food  from  fields  all 


V. 


wn' 


f4\ 


Fig.  48. 

COMBS    CONTAINING   SEALED    HONEY. 

(Forty  Years  Among   the  Bees.) 


white  with  clover,  A  change  in  the  secretion  of  honey  will 
often  take  place  so  suddenly,  that  the  bees  will,  in  a  few 
hours,  pass  from  idleness  to  great  activity. 

As  a  rule,  the  quantity  of  nectar,  exuded  by  the  plants, 
varies  according  to  the  time  of  day  and  atmospheric  condi- 
tions. Usually,  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  morning.  Its 
quantity  decreases  as  the  sun  rises  higher.  At  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  the  flowers  give  the  least  nectar.  Then  the 
yield  again   increases  till   dark.     In   Algeria,  Africa,  in  the 


118  FOOD  OF  BEES. 

neighborhood  of  Blidah,  bees  cannot  find  honey  later  than 
eight  in  the  morning. 

251.  It  is  when  the  blossom  is  ready  for  fertilization, 
that  the  nectar  is  most  abundant  in  it;  if  it  is  not  gathered 
by  insects,  it  is  re-absorbed  by  the  plant  and  serves,  together 
with  the  sugar  accumulated  in  the  ovaries,  to  nourish  the 
seeds. 

232.  The  accumulations  of  sugar  in  the  tissues,  may  exist, 
not  only  in  the  flower,  but  in  different  parts  of  plants,  in  the 
cotyledons,  in  the  leaves,  in  the  stipules,  in  the  bracts,  and 
between  the  leaves  and  twigs.  They  help  the  development  of 
the  tissues. 

Sometimes  the  nectariferous  tissues  are  destitute  of  stomata 
or  openings.  Then  the  accumulated  nectar  may  force  itself 
through  the  cuticle  or  skin  of  the  plant. 

The  water  of  the  sap,  Avhich  rmis  incessantly  in  the  plants, 
goes  out  through  the  different  tissues  in  unequal  quantities; 
as  some  tissues  are  more  porous  than  others.  Generally,  water 
escapes  m  the  form  of  steam;  but,  in  some  circumstances, 
when  the  air  is  moist,  the  water  is  emitted  in  liquid  form,  and 
may  carry  with  it,  to  the  outside,  a  part  of  the  accumulations 
of  sugar  through  which  it  has  passed,  thus  producing  honey- 
dew.  The  more  sugar  this  water  contains,  the  slower  its 
evaporation  will  be. 

253.  The  dampness  of  the  soil  and  of  the  air,  and  a  tem- 
perature iDroducing  a  profuse  transpiration  in  plants,  then  a 
sudden  stop  of  transpiration,  are  the  best  conditions  to  pro- 
duce the  maximum  of  nectar  in  the  nectariferous  tissues  and 
of  liquid  exudations  on  the  outside. 

254.  Most  of  the  above  statements  are  taken,  or  rather 
abridged,  from  "Les  Nectaires."  of  Gaston  Bonnier,  a  pro- 
fessor at  the  Ecole  Xormale  Superieure  of  Paris  (1879). 
This  Avork  was  awarded  a  medal  by  the  Academy  of  Science 
of  Paris.  Bonnier  backs  his  statements  with  one  hundred  and 
thirty  engravings  made  from  microscopic  researches. 

255.  He  explains,  not  only  how  the  nectar  is  formed  in 
the  blossoms,  but  also  how  the  extra  floral  nectar,  the  so-called 
honey-dew,  is  produced  on  different  parts  of  plants,  or  trees. 


Hoxfcv.  119 

i.?e  has  noticed  and  described  the  production  of  neciar 
(honey-dew  without  aphides),  on  many  herbaceous  plants, 
and  on  the  following  trees  or  shrubs:  Two  kinds  of  oak, 
the  ash,  two  kinds  of  linden,  the  sorb,  the  barberiy,  two  kinds 
of  raspberry,  the  poplar,  the  birch,  two  kinds  of  maple,  and 
the  hazel  brush.  In  some  parts  of  Europe,  this  honey -dew 
is  so  plentiful,  that  some  Apiarists  transport  their  bees  to 
the  districts  in  which  it  is  produced,  during  its  yield. 

The  Abbe  Boissier  de  Sauvages,  in  1763,  described  two 
species  of  honey-dew.  The  first  kind,  he  says,  has  the  same 
origin  with  the  manna  on  the  ash  and  maple  trees  of  Calabria 
and  Brianson,  where  it  flows  plentif ullj^  from  their  leaves  and 
trunks,  and  thickens  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  usually  seen.— 
(•'Observations  sur  I'Origine  du  Miel.")  We  have  received 
specimens  of  a  honey-dew  from  California,  which  is  said  to 
fall  from  the  oak  trees  in  stalactites  of  considerable  size. 

256.  Bees  also  harvest,  in  some  seasons,  a  sweet  substance 
of  poorer  quality,  which  is  a  discharge  from  the  bodies  of 
small  aphides  or  "plant  lice." 

Messrs.  Kirby  and  Spence,  m  their  interesting  work  on 
Entomology,  have  given  a  description  of  the  honey-dew  fur- 
nished by  the  aphides: 

''The  loves  of  the  ants  and  the  aphides  have  long  been  cele- 
brated; you  will  always  find  the  former  very  busy  on  those 
trees  and  plants  on  which  the  latter  abound;  and,  if  you  ex- 
amine somewhat  more  closely,  you  will  discover  that  the  object 
of  the  ants  in  thus  attending  upon  aphides,  is  to  obtain 
the  saccharine  fluid  secreted  by  them,  which  may  well  be 
denominated  their  milk.  This  fluid,  which  ,is  scarcely  inferior 
to  honey  in  its  sweetness,  issues  in  liquid  drops  from  the 
abdomen  of  these  insects,  not  only  by  the  ordinary  passage, 
but  also,  by  two  setiform  tubes,  placed  one  on  each  side,  just 
above  it.  Their  sucker  being  inserted  in  the  tender  bark  is, 
without  intermission,  employed  in  absorbing  the  sap,  which, 
after  it  has  passed  through  these  organs,  they  keep  continu- 
ally discharging.  When  no  ants  attend  them,  by  a  certain 
jerk  of  the  body,  which  takes  place  at  regular  intervals,  they 
ejaculate  it  to  a  distance. 


120  FOOD  OF  BEES. 

257*  "Mr.  Knight  once  observed  a  shower  of  honey-clew 
descending  in  innumerable  small  globules,  near  one  of  his  oak 
trees.  He  cut  off  one  of  the  branches,  took  it  into  the  house, 
and,  holding  it  in  a  stream  of  light  admitted  through  a  small 
opening,  distinctly  saw  the  aphides  ejecting  the  fluid  from  their 
bodies  with  considerable  force,  and  this  accounts  for  its  being 
frequently  found  in  situations  where  it  could  not  have  arrived 
by  the  mere  influence  of  gravitation.  The  drops  that  are  thus 
spurted  out,  unless  interrupted  by  the  surrounding  foliage,  or 
some  other  interposing  body,  fall  upon  the  ground;  and  the 
spots  may  often  be  observed,  for  some  time,  beneath  and  around 
the  trees,  affected  with  honey-dew,  till  washed  away  by  the  rain. 
The  power  which  these  insects  possess  of  ejecting  the  fluid 
from  their  bodies,  seems  to  have  been  wisely  instituted  to  pre- 
serve cleanliness  in  each  individual  fly,  and,  indeed,  for  the 
preservation  of  the  family;  for,  pressing  as  they  do  upon  one 
another,  they  would  otherwise  soon  be  glued  together,  and  ren- 
dered incapable  of  stirring.  On  looking  steadfastly  at  a  group 
of  these  insects  (Aphides  salicls)  while  feeding  on  the  bark  of 
the  willow,  their  superior  size  enabled  us  to  perceive  some  of 
them  elevating  their  bodies  and  emitting  a  transparent  sub- 
stance in  the  form  of  a  small  shower: 

"  Xor  scorn  ye   now,  fond  elves,  the  foliage   sear, 
When  the  light  aphids,  arm'd  with  puny  spear. 
Probe  each  emulgent  vein,  till  bright  below. 
Like  falling  stars,  clear  drops  of  nectar  glow." 

Evans. 
258.  '^Honey-dew  usually  appears  upon  the  leaves  as  a  vis- 
cid transparent  substance,  as  sweet  as  honey  itself,  sometimes 
in  the  form  of  globules,  at  others  resembling  a  syrup.  It  is 
generally  most  abundant  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the  middle 
of  July — sometimes*  as  late  as  September. 

'It  is  found  chiefly  upon  the  oak,  the  elm,  the  maple,  the 
plane,  the  sj^camore,  the  lime,  the  hazel,  and  the  blackberry; 
occasionally  also  the  cherry,  currant,  and  other  fruit  trees. 
Sometimes  only  one  species  of  trees  is  affected  at  a  time.  The 
oak  generally  affords  the  largest  quantity.  At  the  season  of  its 
greatest  abundance,  the  happy,  humming  noise  of  the  bees  may 
be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance,  sometimes  nearly  equalling 
in  loudness  the  united  hum  of  swarming." — (Bevan.) 


i'LATL     lo. 


PROF.  GASTON  BONNIER, 

Author  of  -'Cours  Complct  d'Apwulture''  and  of   ''Les  XccUib-cs.'" 
Thi.^    writer   is    mentioned    pages    6,    118,    121,    122. 


HOXEV.  121 

111  some  seasons,  bees  gather  large  supplies  from  these 
honey-dews,  but  it  is  abundant  only  once  in  three  or  four 
years.  The  honey  obtained  from  this  source  is  usually  of  a 
dark  color,  and  never  of  a  good  quality. 

259.  It  is  veiy  difficult  to  ascertain,  at  all  times,  the 
special  source  of  honey-dew,  whether  from  the  trees  or  from 
the  aphides.  In  order  to  give  all  sides  a  hearing,  we  will 
cite  a  letter  from  Mr.  Bonnier  on  this  subject,  and  leave  the 
reader  to  draw  his  own  conclusions : 

"Plant  lice  are  seen  even  on  trees  that  have  no  extra  floral 
nectaries.  They  do  not  produce  exudations  (properly  speaking), 
but  bore  the  tissues  to  eat  the  contents.  Their  presence  on 
the  plant  has  no  connection  with  that  of  the  nectar.  The  ex- 
crement al  liquid  of  aphides  is  not  equally  sweet  in  all  the 
species,  and  the  bees  harvest  only  that  which  is  very  sweet. 
They  generally  prefer  the  true  honey-dew  (miellee),  which 
exudes  from  the  leaves  at  certain  times,  and  contains  mannite 
and  saccharine  matter. 

**I  have  seen  bees,  however,  harvesting  the  sweet  liquid  of 
the  aphides  and  the  true  miellee  at  the  same  time,  on  the 
aspen,  maple,  and  sycamore. 

"I  have  rarely  seen  the  extra  floral  nectar  of  the  special 
nectaries  overflow  and  run  in  drops,  but  the  true  miellee  of  trees 
may  fall  in  small  drops,  and  some  observers  conclude,  from 
this  fact,  that  it  is  produced  by  aphides.  I  have  often  seen 
some  trees,  and  even  all  the  trees,  of  a  timber,  covered  with  an 
abundant  miellee,  falling  in  small  drops,  although  there  was 
not  a  single  louse  on  the  higher  limbs. 

' '  To  sum  up,  we  must  not  confound  the  three  kinds  of  sweet 
liquid,  which  may  be  produced  outside  the  flowers:  1st,  The 
extra-floral  nectar  proper,  produced,  like  the  nectar  of  flowers, 
from  special  sugar  tissues;  2d,  The  true  miellee,  produced  on 
the  surface  of  the  leaves  of  trees  or  shrubs,  without  the  action 
of  aphides;  3rd,  the  excretion,  more  or  less  sweet,  sometimes 
containing  very  little  sugar,  abundantly  produced  by  a  great 
number  of  aphides. ' ' 

260.  Ill  some  blossoms,  as  in  the  red  clover,  the  corolla 
is  so  dee))  and  narrow,  that  the  nectar  is  out  of  reach  of  the 


122  FOOD   OF   BEES. 

honey-bee.  Larger  insects,  such  as  the  bumble-bee,  or  smaller 
ones,  as  some  wasps,  enjoy  it  to  the  exclusion  of  our  favorites. 
Yet  in  some  seasons,  we  have  seen  bees  working  on  red-clover 
bloom,  and  have  attributed  this  to  the  corollas  being  shorter, 
owing  to  drouth,  or  scant  growth.  Mr.  Bonnier  has  discovered 
that,  in  some  such  flowers,  the  nectar  is  sometimes  so  abundant 
that  the  bees  can  reach  it.  It  is  true  that  insects,  and  even 
bees,  can  tear  the  tender  corollas  of  some  blossoms,  opposite 
the  honey  receptacle,  to  reach  the  nectar,  but  this  is  of  such 
rare  instance,  in  the  honey-bee,  that  it  cannot  be  considered 
of  any  practical  value. 

261.  The  honey,  when  harvested,  is  stored  in  the  rear 
of  the  hive,  above  the  brood,  and  as  near  it  as  possible. 

When  just  gathered,  it  is  too  wateiy  to  be  preserved  fcr 
the  use  of  the  bees.  To  evaporate  this  water,  they  force  a 
strong  current  of  air  through  the  hive,  and  the  bee-keeper 
can  ascertain  the  days  of  large  honey-yield,  by  the  greater 
roar  of  the  bees  in  front  of  their  hive  during  the  night  fol- 
lowing. If  a  strong  colony  is  put  on  a  platform  scale,  it  will 
be  found,  during  the  height  of  the  honey-harvest,  to  gain  a 
number  of  pounds  on  a  pleasant  day.  Much  of  this  weight 
will  be  lost  in  the  night,  from  the  evaporation  of  the  newly- 
gathered  honey.  A  thorough  upward  ventilation,  in  hot 
weather,  will  therefore  contribute  to  increase  the  ripening  of 
honey  (763). 

When  the  cell  is  about  full,  the  bees  seal  it  with  a  flat  cover 
or  capping  made  of  wax.  This  capping  is  begmi  at  the  lower 
edge  of  the  cell,  and  is  raised  graduall}',  as  the  honey  is  de- 
posited within,  till  the  cell  is  entirely  sealed.  These  cappings 
being  flat,  depressed,  or  uneven,  are  easily  distinguished  from 
the  caps  of  the  brood,  which  are  convex  and  of  a  darker  color. 

262.  Are  the  caps  of  the  honey-cells  air-tight  ? 

The  caps  of  the  brood-cells,  made  of  pollen  and  wax,  are 
undoubtedly  porous  enough  to  allow  the  air  to  reach  the 
lar\'a;  and  some  Apiarists  question  the  impen^ousness  of  the 
sealing  of  honey-comb.  Mr.  Cheshire  himself,  while  of  opmion 
that  "the  bee  aims  at  compact  coverings  for  her  honey,"  says 
that  "not  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  these  are  absolutely  im- 


POLLEX.  123 

pervious  to  air."  Yet  his  own  description  of  the  cause  of 
the  well-known  whiteness  of  the  cappings,  owing  to  the  air 
which  is  left  behind  and  "cannot  escape,"  would  prove  that 
these  eappings  are  originally  made  as  air-tight  as  a  thin  coat 
of  wax  can  make  them.  But  it  is  possible  that  the  thin  coat 
of  wax,  though  evidently  air-tight,  be,  in  some  circumstances, 
porous  enough  to  alloAV  moisture  to  soak  through  it  slowly, 
like  water  through  leather. 

Pollen. 

263.  The  pollen,  or  fertilizing  dust  of  flowers,  is  gathered 
by  the  bees  from  blossoms,  and  is  mdispensable  to  the  nourish- 
ment of.  their  young — repeated  experiments  having  proved 
that  brood  cannot  be  raised  without  it.  It  is  very  rich  in 
the  nitrogenous  substances  Avhich  are  not  contained  in  honey, 
and  without  which  ample  nourishment  could  not  be  furnished 
for  the  development  of  the  growing  bee.  Dr.  Hunter,  on 
dissecting  some  immature  bees,  found  that  their  stomachs  con- 
tamed  pollen,  but  not  a  particle  of  honey. 

We  are  indebted  to  Huber  for  the  discoveiy  that  pollen  is 
the  principal  food  of  the  young  bees.  As  large  supplies  were 
often  found  in  hives  whose  inmates  had  starved,  it  was  evident 
that,  without  honey,  it  could  not  support  the  mature  bees; 
and  this  led  former  observers  to  conclude  that  it  served  for 
the  building  of  comb.  Huber,  after  demonstrating  that  wax 
can  be  secreted  from  an  entirely  different  substance,  soon 
ascertained  that  pollen  was  used  for  ihe  nourishment  of  the 
embiyo  bees.  Confining  some  bees  to  their  hive  without  any 
pollen,  he  supplied  them  with  honey,  eggs,  and  larvse.  In  a 
short  time,  the  young  all  perished.  A  fresh  supply  of  brood 
being  given  to  them,  with  an  ample  allowance  of  pollen,  the 
development  of  the  larvse  proceeded  in  the  natural  way. 

264.  AVe  had  an  excellent  opportunity  of  testing  the  value 
of  this  substance,  in  the  backward  Spring  of  1852.  On  the 
5th  of  February',  we  opened  a  hive  containing  an  artificial 
swarm  of  the  previous  j^ear,  and  found  many  of  the  cells  filled 
with  brood.  The  combs,  being  examined  on  the  23d,  contained 


l24  t'OoD   Oi'  BEES. 

neither  eggs,  brood  nor  bee-bread;  and  the  colony  was  sup- 
plied with  pollen  from  another  hive;  the  next  day,  a  large 
number  of  eggs  were  found  in  the  cells.  When,  this  supply 
was  exhausted,  laying  again  ceased,  and  was  only  resumed 
when  more  was  furnished.  During  the  time  of  these  experi- 
ments, the  weather  was  so  unpromising,  that  the  bees  were 
unable  to  leave  the  hive. 

Dzierzon  is  of  opinion  that  bees  can  furnish  food  for  their 
young,  without  pollen;  although  he  admits  that  they  can  do 
it  only  for  a  short  time,  and  at  a  great  expense  of  vital 
energy;  just  as  the  strength  of  an  animal  nursing  its  young 
is  rapidly  reduced,  if,  for  want  of  proper  food,  the  vei*y  sub- 
stance of  the  mother's  body  must  be  converted  into  milk. 
The  experiment  just  described  does  not  -corroborate  this 
theory,  but  confirms  Huberts  view,  that  pollen  is  indispensable 
to  the  development  of  brood. 

Gundelach,  an  able  German  Apiarist,  says  that  if  a  colony 
with  a  fertile  queen  be  confined  to  an  empty  hive,  and  sup- 
plied with  honey,  comb  will  be  rapidly  built,  and  the  cells 
filled  with  eggs,  which  in  due  time  will  be  hatched;  but  the 
worms  will  all  die  within  twenty-four  hours. 

Sometimes  bees,  unable  to  feed  their  brood  for  lack  of 
pollen,  desert  their  hives  (407,  663). 

265.  In  September,  1856,  we  put  a  very  large  colony  of 
bees  into  a  new  hive,  to  determine  some  points  on  which  we 
were  then  experimenting.  The  weather  Avas  fine,  and  they 
gathered  pollen,  and  built  comb  very  rapidly;  still  for  ten 
days,  the  queen-bee  deposited  no  eggs  in  the  cells.  During 
all  that  time,  these  bees  stored  very  little  pollen  in  the  combs. 
One  of  the  days  being  so  stormy  that  they  could  not  go 
abroad,  they  were  supplied  with  rye  flour  (267),  none  of 
which,  although  very  greedily  appropriated,  could  be  found 
in  the  cells.  During  all  this  time,  as  there  was  no  brood  to 
be  fed,  the  pollen  must  have  been  used  by  the  bees  either  for 
nourishment,  or  to  assist  them  in  secreting  wax;  or,  as  we 
believe,  for  both  these  purposes. 

266.  Bees  prefer  to  gather  fresh,  pollen,  even  when  there 
are  large  accumulations  of  old  stores  in  the  cells.    With  hives 


POLLF.X.  125 

giving-  the  control  of  the  combs,  the  surplus  of  old  colonies 
may  be  made  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  young  ones;  the 
latter,  in  Spring,  being  often  destitute  of  this  important 
article.  Although  the  bees  of  queenless  colonies  do  not  usually 
go  in  quest  of  pollen,  some  occasionally  harvest  it,  and  as 
it  is  not  used,  it  accumulates  in  the  hive.  Sometimes  it  de- 
teriorates during  the  Winter  and  becomes  worthless,  from 
mould. 

If  honey  and  pollen  can  both  be  obtained  from  the  same 
blossom,  the  mdustrious  msect  usually  gathers  a  load  of  each. 
To  prove  this,  let  a  few  pollen-gatherers  be  dissected  when 
honey  is  plenty;  and  their  honey-sacks  will  ordinarily  be 
full. 

When  the  bee  brings  home  a  load  of  pollen,  she  stores  it 
away,  by  inserting  her  body  in  a  cell,  and  brushing  it  from 
her  legs;  it  is  then  carefully  packed  down,  being  often  cov- 
ered with  honej',  and  sealed  over  with  wax.  Pollen  is  seldom 
deposited  in  any  except  worker-cells. 

Aristotle  observed,  that  a  bee,  in  gathering  pollen,  confines 
herself  to  the  kind  of  blossom  on  which  she  begins,  even  if 
it  is  not  so  abundant  as  some  others;  thus  a  ball  of  this 
substance  taken  from  her  thigh,  is  found  to  be  of  a  uniform 
color  throughout ;  the  load  of  one  insect  being  yellow,  of 
another,  red,  and  of  a  third,  brown;  the  color  varying  with 
that  of  the  plant  from  which  the  supply  was  obtained.  They 
may  prefer  to  gather  a  load  from  a'  single  species  of  plant, 
because  the  pollen  of  different  kinds  does  not  pack  so  well 
together.  Reaumur  has  estimated,  that  a  good  colony  may 
gather  and  use  as  much  as  one  hundred  pounds  of  it  in  a 
year. 

267.  When  bees  cannot  find  pollen,  in  early  Spring,  they 
will  gather  flour,  or  meal,  or  even  fine  sawdust,  as  a  sub- 
stitute.    This  was  noticed  by  Hartlib,  as  early  as  1655. 

Dzierzon,  early  in  the  Spring,  observed  his  bees  bringing 
rye-meal  to  their  hives  from  a  neighboring  mill,  before  they 
could  procure  any  pollen  from  natural  supplies.  The  liint 
was  not  lost;  and  it  is  now  a  common  practice,  wherever  bee- 
keeping is  extensively   carried   on,  to  supply  the  bees  early 


126  FOOD  OF  BEES. 

in  the  season  mih  this  article.  Shallow  troughs  or  boxes  are 
set  not  far  from  the  apiaries,  filled  about  two  inches  deep 
with  finely-ground^  dry,  unbolted  rye-meal,  oatmeal  or  even 
with  flour.  ^Yhere  bolted  flour,  or  meal,  is  given,  it  should 
be  tightly  pressed  with  the  hands,  to  prevent  the  bees  from 
drownmg  in  it.  To  attract  them  to  it,  we  bait  them  with  a 
few  old  combs,  or  a  little  honey. 

The  boxes  must  be  placed  in  a  warm  spot  sheltered  from 
the  wind.  Thousands  of  bees,  when  the  weather  is  favor- 
able, resort  eagerly  to  them,  and  return  heaviiy  laden  to  their 
hives. 

This  artificial  pollen  or  bee-bread,  is  kneaded  by  them  with 
saliva,  or  honey  brought  from  the  hive.  This  is  easily  ascer- 
tained by  tasting  the  little  pellets,  which  in  the  hurry  are 
loosened  from  their  baskets,  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the 
flour  box.  In  fine,  mild  weather,  they  labor  at  this  work 
with  great  industry;  preferring  the  meal  to  the  old  pollen 
stored  in  their  combs.  They  thus  breed  early,  and  rapidly 
recruit  their  numbers.  The  feeding  is  continued  till,  the  blos- 
soms furnishmg  a  preferable  article,  they  cease  to  cany  off 
the  meal. 

We  will  here  add  that,  as  a  rule,  colonies  that  do  not  carry 
in  meal  <or  pollen,  at  the  opening  of  Spring,  are  without 
brood,  either  because  they  are  queenless,  or  from  w^ant  of 
honey,  or  from  some  other  cause. 

The  discovery  of  flour,  as  a  substitute  for  pollen,  removes 
a  very  serious  obstacle  to  the  culture  of  bees.  In  many  dis- 
tricts, there  is  for  a  short  time  such  an  abundant  supply  of 
honey,  that  almost  any  number  of  strong  colonies  will,  in  a 
good  season,  lay  up  enough  for  themselves,  and  a  large  sur- 
plus for  their  owners.  In  many  of  these  districts,  however, 
the  supply  of  pollen  is  often  quite  insufficient,  and  in  Spring, 
the  swarms  of  the  previous  year  are  so  destitute,  that  unless 
the  season  is  early,  the  production  of  brood  is  seriously 
cheeked,  and  the  colony  cannot  avail  itself  properly  of  the 
the  superabundant  harvest  of  honey. 

268.  As  bees  carry  on  their  bodies  the  pollen,  or  fer- 
tilizing substance,  they  aid  most  powerfully  in  the  impreg*na- 


POLLEX. 


12' 


tion  of  plants  (878),  while  piyiiig  into  the  blossoms  in  search 
of  honey  or  bee-bread.  In  genial  seasons,  fruit  will  often 
set  abundantly,  even  if  no  bees  are  kept  in  its  vicinity;  but 
many  Springs  are  so  unpropitious,  that  often  during  the 
critical  period  of  blossoming,  the  sun  shines  for  only  a  few 
hours,  so  that  those  only  can  reasonably  expect  a  remunerating 
crop  whose  trees  are  all  murmuring  with  the  pleasant  hum  of 
bees. 

269.     One  of  the  laws  of  Nature  is  that  the  crossing  of 
the   races   produces  offsjoring  with   greater  vigor,   endurance. 


rig.  49. 

SCROPHULAF.IA    NODOSA. 

(Magnified.      Frcm   Cheshire.) 

A,  young  blossom,      s,   stigma. 

B,  section   of   blossom,      ca,   calyx ;    Cj    corolla ;    aa,    aborted    anthers ; 
5^  stigma  ;   I,  lip  ;  a,  anthers  ;  n,  nectar ;  hi,  black  lip. 

C,  older  blossom,      s,  dropping  stigma ;    a,  anthers. 


and  faculty  of  reproduction.  Fruits  succeed  better,  when 
the  pollen,  which  fertilizes  the  pistil,  comes  from  some  other 
blossom;  and  the  insects  are  intrusted  with  the  mission  of 
transporting  this  pollen  from  one  blossom  to  another,  while 
gathering  it  for  their  own  use.  In  some  plants,  fertilization 
would  have  been  impossible,  without  the  help  of  insects.  For 
instance,  some  plants,  such  as  the  willows,  are  diecious,  having 
their  male  organs  on  one  tree,  and  their  female  organs  on 
another.  The  bees  after  visiting  the  one  for  pollen,  go  to 
tlie  other  for  honey,  and  the  fecundation  is  effected.     In  some 


128  FOOD   OF   BEES. 

other  plants,  such  as  the  Scrophularia  Nodosa  (Simpson 
honey  plant— Fig.  49),  the  female  organs  are  ready  for 
fecundation  earlier  than  the  male.  But  as  the  flower  secretes 
a  large  quantity  of  honey,  which  is  replaced  in  its  nectaries 
as  fast  as  the  bees  gather  it,  the  bees,  in  traveling  from  one 
blossom  to  another,  cany  the  pollen  of  an  old  blossom  to  the 
pistil  of  a  younger  one,  and  fertilization  is  accomplished. 
Some  plants,  corn,  for  instance,  produce  such  quantities  of 
pollen,  that  the  agency  of  msects  is  less  indispensable  to  the 
fertilization  of  their  blossoms. 

270.  To  determine  the  advantages  which  flowers  derive 
from  insect  fertilization,  any  one  can  wrap  a  few  flowers  in 
gauze,  just  before  the  opening  of  the  bud,  and  compare  the 
number  of  fertile  seeds,  from  flowers  thus  treated,  with  those 
of  other  blossoms. 

We  have  heard  farmers  mention  the  fact  that  the  first  crop 
of  red  clover  furnishes  but  little  seed,  compared  with  the 
second  crop.  This  is  because  the  bumble-bees,  which  help  its 
fertilization,  are  ver}^  scarce  in  Spring,  while  they  are  much 
more  plentiful  in  Summer.  "In  Australia  it  was  found  im- 
possible to  obtain  seed  from  red  clover  until  the  bumble-bees 
were  imported  into  that  country"   (Darwin). 

A  large  fruit-grower  told  us  that  his  cherries  were  a  veiy 
uncertain  crop,  a  cold  northeast  storm  frequently  prevailing 
when  they  were  in  blossom.  He  had  noticed  that,  if  the  sun 
shone  only  for  a  couple  of  hours,  the  bees  secured  him  a  crop. 

If  those  horticulturists,  who  regard  the  bee  as  an  enemy 
(871),  could  exterminate  the  race,  they  would  act  with  as 
little  wisdom  as  those  who  attempt  to  banish  from  their  inhos- 
pitable premises  every  insectivorous  bird,  which  helps  itself  to 
a  small  part  of  the  abundance  it  has  aided  in  producing.  By 
making  judicious  efforts  early  in  the  Spring,  to  entrap  tlie 
mother-wasps  and  hornets,  which  alone  survive  the  AVinter, 
an  effectual  blow  may  be  struck  at  some  of  the  worst  pests 
of  the  orchard  and  garden.  In  Europe,  those  engaged  ex- 
tensively in  the  cultivation  of  fruit,  often  pay  a  small  sum 
in  the  Spring  for  all  wasps  and  hornets  destroyed  in  their 
vicinity. 


WATER. 


129 


Water. 

271.  Water  is  necessary  to  bees  to  dissolve  the  honey, 
which  sometimes  granulates  in  the  cells,  to  digest  the  pollen 
and  to  prepare  the  food  with  which  they  feed  the  larvee. 
They  can  raise  a  certain  amount  of  brood  without  water,  but 
they  always  seem  to  suffer  more  or  less  in  consequence  (662). 
In  the  Winter,  they  breed  but  little,  and  the  moisture  which 
condenses  on  the  walls  of  the  hive  is  generally  sufficient.  Yet 
we  have  noticed  that  as  soon  as  bees  are  brought  out  of  the 
cellar  (653),  if  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  warm,  a  great 
many  will  be  seen  sucking  water.  This  fact  shows  that  Ber- 
lepsch  was  right  w^hen  he  advised  bee-keepers  to  give  water 
to  bees  during  Winter,  to  avoid  what  he  called  disease  of  the 
thirst.  Besides,  every  one  may  notice  that  bees  take  advantage 
of  any  warm  Winter  day  to  bring  it  to  their  hives;  and,  in 
early  Spring,  may  be  seen  busily  drinking  around  pumps, 
drains,  and  other  moist  places.  Later  in  the  season,  they  sip 
the  dew  from  the  grass  and  leaves. 

272.  Every  careful  bee-keeper  will  see  that  liis  bees 
well  supplied  with  water.  If 
he  has  not  some  sunny  spot, 
close  at  hand,  where  they  can 
safely  obtain  it,  he  will  fur- 
nish them  with  shallow  wood- 
en troughs,  or  vessels  filled 
with  floats  or  straw,  from 
which  —  sheltered  from  cold 
wiiids,  and  warmed  by  the 
genial  rays  of  the  sun— they 
can  drink  without  risk  of 
drowning. 

A  baiTel  half  filled  with' 
earth  and  then  filled  with 
water,  in  which  some  water- 
cress or  other  aquatic  plants  are  kept,  to  preserve  it  from 
])utrefaction,  and  to  prevent  the  bees  from  drowning,  will 
do  very  well.     For  a  small  a]iiaT-y,  a  jug  or  bottle   (fio.  50), 


are 


WATER     SUPPLY     BOTTLE. 

(From  Sartori  and  Rauschenfels.) 


130  FOOD   OF  BEES. 

filled  with  water,  and  inverted  on  a  plate  covered  with  a 
small  piece  of  carpet,  will  be  sufficient.  It  can  also  be  given 
in  the  combs.  Mr.  Vogel,  editor  of  the  Bienenzeitung,  on 
the  19th  of  March  gave  to  a  colony  a  comb  containing  crystal- 
lized honey,  and  another  containing  about  three-fourths  of  a 
pound  of  water.  Within  sixteen  hours,  both  combs  were 
altogether  emptied  by  the  bees. 

273.  A  learned  French  bee-keeper,  Mr.  De  Layens,  made 
many  experiments  in  regard  to  this  matter. 

"In  the  month  of  May,  1878,  I  put  a  lump  of  sugar  near  a 
spot  where  a  great  many  bees  came  for  water;  they  paid  no 
attention  to  it.  The  sugar  was  then  moistened  and  covered 
with  honey.  The  bees,  attracted  by  the  honey,  came  in  great 
numbers,  and  sucked  up  most  of  the  moist  sugar.  After  they 
became  accustomed  to  this,  I  decreased  the  moistening,  till  I 
gave  them  nothing  but  dry  sugar,  when  they  brought  water  to 
dissolve  the  sugar,  and  removed  all  except  the  parts  which  were 
too  hard  to  be  dissolved  easily." — (Bulletin  de  la  Suisse,  Nov., 
1880.) 

The  same  writer  has  noticed  that,  in  Spring,  if  the  bees 
are  compelled  to  go  veiy  far  for  water,  many  of  them  perish. 
He  found  a  loss  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  grammes  of  bees— 
four-fifths  of  a  pound— from  a  hive,  during  a  sudden  Spring- 
storm  (606). 

From  the  10th  of  April  to  the  31st  of  July,  forty  colonies 
consumed  187  litres  of  water,  about  fifty  gallons;  the  greatest 
quantity  used  in  a  day  being  seven  litres,  or  about  fifteen 
pints. 

That  bees  do  not  need  water,  in  circumstances  other  than 
those  named  above,  is  evidenced  from  the  fact  that,  in  im- 
porting bees  from  Italy,  Ave  did  not  succeed  in  receiving  them 
alive,  until  our  shippers  reluctantly  consented  to  send  them 
without  water  (595). 

Salt. 

274.  Bees  seem  to  be  so  fond  of  salt,  that  they  will  often 
alight  upon  our  hands  to  lick  up  the  saline  perspiration. 


SALT.  131 

''During  the  early  part  of  the  breeding  season,"  said  Dr. 
Bevan,  ' '  till  the  beginning  of  May,  I  keep  a  constant  supply  of 
salt  and  water  near  my  apiary,  and  find  it  thronged  with  bees 
from  early  morn  till  late  in  the  evening.  About  this  period 
the  quantity  they  consume  is  considerable,  but  afterwards  they 
seem  indifferent  to  it.  The  eagerness  they  evince  for  it  at  one 
period  of  the  season,  and  their  indifference  at  another,  may 
account  for  the  opposite  opinions  entertained  respecting  it." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    BEE-HIVES.  — HIVES    WITH    IMMOVABLE    COMBS. 

275.  The  first  hives  that  were  provided  for  bees  were  as 
rude  as  their  natural  abodes.  We  do  not  need  to  look  bnck 
very  far  to  remember  the  "bee-gum,"  so  called,  probably,  be- 
cause it  had  often  been  made  out  of  the  g-um  tree,  with  two 
sticks  crossmg  in  the  middle,  and  a  rough  board  nailed  on 
top,  while  a  notch  in  the  lower  end  formed  the  entrance.  In 
the  Old  World,  they  manufactured  straw  or  willow  "skeps" 
and  pottery  hives,  which  are  still  used  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
The  earthen  hive  was  simply  a  tube,  laid  on  its  side,  and 
closed  at  each  end  with   a  movable  wooden   disk.     This  disk 


Fig.  51. 
EARTHEN  HIVE  OF  AFRICA  AND  CYPRUS. 

(From  "L'Apicoltore,"  Milan.) 

was  removed  to  take  the  honey,  which  is  always  located  at  the 
back  part  of  the  hives. 

These  eaithen  hives  were,  unquestionably,  the  most  sensible 
of  those  old  kinds.  In  the  Islands  of  Greece  they  were  set 
in  thick  stone  walls,  built  on  purpose  with  the  entrance  on  one 
side  of  the  wall.  Sometimes  they  were  located  in  the  walls 
of  the  houses,  and  the  honey  was  removed  from  the  inside  of 
the  house,  or,  if  in  walls,  from  behind,  out  of  the  flight  of 
bees. 

132 


IIIVKS    WITIJ    IMMOVABLfc:   ro:MB.s. 


133 


?J7(>.  To  get  the  honey  from  the  gums,  or  boxes,  the  bee- 
keepers used  at  first  to  drive  the  bees  to  another  hive  (5'S'4) 
and  take  all  the  contents.  But  most  of  the  thus  impoverished 
colonies  perished.  This  led  to  the  thought  that  killing  bees 
would  be  more  facile,  and  the  brimstone-pit  was  invented. 
This  killing  of  bees  was  so  customaiy  that  in  the  XVIIIth 
centurj',  Joseph  II,  Emperor  of  Austria,  decreed  that  eveiy 
bee-keeper  Avho  would  cut  the  combs  in  Spring,  instead  of 
brimstoning  the  bees,  would  receive  one  florin  (about  forty 
cents)   per  colony. 


Fig.  52. 

BOX    HIVE,   WITH   CAP. 

(From  Hamet.) 


277.  About  the  j^ar  1830,  our  senior,  then  a  boy,  saw 
this  harvesting  of  combs  for  the  first  time.  Clothed  with  a 
heavy  linen  frock,  equipped  with  a  mask  of  wire  strong 
enough  to  be  sword-proof,  and  sweating-  under  a  scorching 
sun  in  this  hea\y  gamient,  he  helped  (?)  the  old  priest  of 
his  \nllage  to  prune  about  twenty  colonies,  removing  the  back 
combs  with  a  curved  knife,  from  the  upturned  hives.  It  was 
in  April:   and,  while  the  crop  thus  harvested  was  lisht,  the 


134 


THE    BEE-HtVES. 


damage  inliicted  to  the  bees  was  immense,  for  they  had  to 
rebuild  their  combs  at  a  time  when  queens  begin  their  greatest 
laying.  But  the  bee-keepers  of  old  were  persuaded  that  this 
crop  of  beeswax  was  beneficial  to  bees,  since  it  compelled  them 


CO   K   w) 


bi) 


O  < 
to 

o  o 
<  m 

X  2 


HIVES    WITH    IMMOVABLE    COMBS. 


135 


to  make  new  combs,  which  were  considered  better  than  older 
ones  (676). 

278.  Some  bee-keepers,  having  noticed  that  bees  place 
their  honey  at  the  highest  part  of  the  hive,  added  a  cap  or 
upper  ^ory,  which  i3oinmnnicated  with  the  hive  through  a 
hole  in  the  top  of  the  latter.  Still  later,  Apiarists  found  out 
that  when  the  hive  was  very  deep  and  the  connecting  hole 
small,  the  bees  refused  to  store  their  honey  in  the  cap,  and 


Fig.    54. 

STRAW     EKE     HIVE. 

(From   Hamet.) 

B,  body  ;  A,  hole  to  connect  the 

stories  with   the  surplus  cap. 


Fig.    55. 

THE    RADOUAN    EKE    HIVE. 

(From    Hamet.) 


they  made  their  hives  with  open  ceilings,  repla<?ing  the  top 
board  of  the  breeding-stoiy  with  slats  or  bars.  The  hives 
were  aftein\'ards  divided  into  several  horizontal  sections,  called 
"ekes"  (figs.  54  and  55).  Instead  of  using  a  cap,  some  Apiar- 
ists removed  the  upper  stoiy,  when  full  of  honey,  and  placed 
a  new  stoiy  under  the  others.  The  bees  then  continued  their 
constructions  downwards.  To  separate  the  sections  from  one 
another,  they  used  a  wire  that  cut  the  combs.  Butler,  in  his 
"Feminine  Monarchy,"  1634,  showed  hives  composed  of  four 
sections,  piled  upon  one  another.  Palteau,  in  1750,  advised 
bee-keepers  to  use   a  perforated   ceiling  at   the  top   of  each 


136 


THE    BEL-JIIVES. 


section.  Radouan,  iu  1821,  instead  of  a  perforated  ceiling, 
used  triangular  bars,  to  which  the  bees  attached  theii'  combs. 
Chas.  Soria,  in  1845,  used  these  bars  at  the  bottom  of  each 
stoiy  as  well  as  at  the  top,  with  bee  space  between,  so  that 
they  could  be  removed,  exchanged,  or  reversed,  without  crush- 
ing any  bees,  or  damaging  a  single  cell  (fig.  56). 

279.  Other  Apiarists  divided  their  hives  vertically,  con- 
formably with  the  shape  of  the  combs  of  the  bees,  which  hang 
vertically.  If  we  are  correctly  informed,  it  was  Jonas  de 
Gelieu  who   maugurated   this  style    (fig.   57).     He   made   his 


Fig.    56. 

EKE    OF    CHAS.     SORIA. 

(From  Hamet.) 


Fig.    .5  7. 

DIVIDING    HIVE    OF    JONAt 
DE    GELIEU. 

(From   Hamet.) 


hive  divisible  mto  only  two  parts.  Oettl,  towards  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  made  a  straw  hive  divided  into 
three  vertical  parts.  The  main  advantage  of  these  hives  re- 
sides in  the  facility  of  dividing  them  for  artificial  swarming. 
But  as  this  method  of  making  artificial  swarms  is  defective, 
as  will  be  shown  further  (470),  and  as  all  these  con- 
trivances did  not  allow  a  close  study  of  the  habits  of  the  bee, 
or  pennit  the  needed  manipulations,  it  became  necessaiy  to 
invent  a  hive  whose  eveiy  comb,  and  eveiy  part,  the  Apiarist 
could  promptly  and  easily  control;  a  hive  which,  to  employ 
the  forcible  expression  of  Mr.  Hamet,  could  ''sc  demonter 
comme  nn  jcu  dc  marionettes'" ;  (be  taken  to  pieces  like  a 
puppet-show). 


KEyUlSlTES    OF   A    COMPLETE    HIVE.  137 


Requisites  of  a  Complete  Hive. 

280.  1.  A  complete  hive  should  give  the  Apiarist  such 
perfect  control  of  all  the  combs,  that  they  may  be  easily 
taken  out  without  cutting  them,  or  exciting  the  anger  of  the 
bees. 

2.  It  should  permit  ail  necessaiy  operations  to  be  performed 
without  hurting  or  killmg  a  suigle  bee. 

Some  hives  are  so  constructed,  that  they  cannot  be  used 
without  mjuring  or  destroying  some  of  the  bees;  and  the 
destruction  of  even  a  few  materially  increases  the  difficulty 
of  managing  them  (399). 

3.  It  should  afford  suitable  protection  against  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  and  the  m- 
jurious  effects  of  dampness. 

The  interior  of  a  hive  should  be  dry  in  Winter,  and  free 
in  Summer  from  a  pent  and  suffocating  heat. 

i.  Not  one  unnecessary  motion  should  be  required  of  a 
single  bee. 

As  the  honey-harvest,  in  most  locations,  is  of  short  con- 
tinuance, all  the  arrangements  of  the  hive  should  facilitate, 
to  the  utmost,  the  work  of  the  busy  gatherers.  Hives  w^iich 
compel  them  to  travel  with  their  hea^y  burdens  through 
densely  crowded  combs,  are  very  objectionable.  Bees  instead 
of  forcing  their  way  through  thick  clusters,  must  easily  pass 
into  the  top  surplus  honey-boxes  of  the  hives,  from  any  comb 
in  the  hive,  and  into  eveiy  part,  without  traveling  much  over 
the  combs. 

.5.  It  should  be  capable  of  being  readily  adjusted  to  the 
wants  of  either  large  or  small  colonies. 

6.  It  should  allow  eveiy  good  piece  of  worker-comb  to  be 
given  to  the  bees,  instead  of  melting  it  into  wax,  and  should 
permit  of  the  use  of  comb-foundation   (674). 

7.  It  should  prevent  the  over-production  of  drones,  by 
permitting  the  removal  of  drone-comb  from  the  hive. 

A  hive  containing  too  much  comb  suitable  only  for  storing 
honey,  or  raising  drones,  cannot  be  expected  to  prosper. 


138  THE    BEE-HIVES. 

S.  It  should  allow  the  bottom  board  to  be  loosened  or  fas- 
tened at  will,  for  ventilation,  or  to  clear  out  the  dead  bees 
in  Winter.  If  suffered  to  remain,  they  often  become  mouldy, 
and  injure  the  health  of  the  colony.  In  dragging  them  out, 
when  the  weather  nioderates,  the  bees  often  fall  with  them  on 
the  snow,  and  are  so  chilled,  that  they  never  rise  again;  for 
a  bee,  in  flying  away  with  the  dead,  frequently  retains  its  hold 
until  both  fall  to  the  ground. 

9.  No  part  of  the  interior  of  the  hive  should  be  below  the 
level  of  the  place  of  exit. 

If  this  principle  is  violated,  the  bees  must,  at  great  disad- 
vantage, drag,  up  liill,  their  dead,  and  all  the  refuse  of  the 
hive. 

10.  It  should  afford  facilities  for  feeding  bees,  both  in 
warm  and  cool  weather,  in  case  of  need. 

11.  It  should  furnish  facilities  for  enlarging,  contracting, 
and  closing  the  entrance,  to  protect  the  bees  against  robbers; 
and  when  the  entrance  is  altered,  the  bees  ought  not,  as  in 
some  hives,  to  lose  valuable  time  in  searching  for  it. 

12.  It  should  furnish  facilities  for  admitting  at  once  a 
large  body  of  air,  that  the  bees  may  be  tempted  to  fly  out 
and  discharge  their  faeces,  on  warm  days  in  Winter,  or  early 
Spring. 

If  such  a  free  admission  of  air  cannot  be  given,  the  bees, 
by  losing  a  favorable  opportunity  of  emptying  themselves, 
may  suffer  from  diseases  resulting  from  too  long  confine- 
ment. 

13.  It  should  allow  the  bees,  together  with  the  heat  and 
odor  of  the  main  hive,  to  pass  in  the  freest  manner,  to  the 
surplus  honey  receptacles. 

14.  Each  of  the  parts  of  eveiy  hive  in  an  apiary  should 
be  so  made,  as  to  be  interchangeable  from  one  hive  to  an- 
other. In  this  way,  the  Apiarist  can  readily  make  the  ex- 
changes of  brood,  honey,  or  pollen,  which  circumstances  de- 
mand. 

15.  The  hive  should  permit  the  surplus  honey  to  be  taken 
away  in  the  most  convenient,  beautiful  and  salable  forms. 


REQUISITES   OF   A    COMPLETE    HIVE.  139 

16.  It  should  be  eqiialh'  well  adapted  to  be  used  as  a 
swarmer,  or  non-swarmer, 

17.  It  should  enable  the  Apiarist  to  multiply  his  colonies 
with  a  certamty  and  rapidity  which  are  impossible  if  he  de- 
pends on  natural  swarming. 

18.  It  should  enable  the  Apiarist  to  supply  destitute  col- 
onies with  the  means  of  obtaining  a  new  queen. 

19.  It  should  enable  him  to  catch  the  queen,  for  any  pur- 
pose; especially  to  remove  an  old  one  whose  fertility  is  im- 
paired by  age. 

20.  It  should  enable  a  smgle  bee-keeper  to  superintend 
several  hundred  colonies  for  different  individuals. 

Many  persons  would  keep  bees,  if  an  apiary,  like  a  gar- 
den, could  be  supermtended  by  a  competent  individual.  If  the 
bees  are  allowed  to  swarm,  he  may  be  called  in  a  dozen  dif- 
ferent directions  at  once,  and  if  any  accident,  such  as  the 
loss  of  a  queen,  happens  to  the  colonies  of  his  customers, 
he  can  usually  apply  no  remedy. 

21.  All  the  joints  of  the  hive  should  be  water-tight,  and 
there  should  be  no  doors  or  shutters  or  drawers  liable  to  shrink, 
swell,   or  get  out  of  order. 

22.  A  complete  hive  should  be  protected  against  the  de- 
structive ravages  of  mice  in  Winter. 

23.  It  should  permit  the  honey,  after  the  gathering  season 
is  over,  to  be  concentrated  where  the  bees  will  most  need  it. 

24.  It  should  permit  the  space  for  spare  honey  receptacles 
to  be  enlarged  or  contrcX.cted  at  will,  without  any  alteration 
or  destruction  of  existmg  parts  of  the  hive. 

Without  the  power  to  do  this,  the  productive  force  of  a 
colony  is  in  some  seasons  greatly  diminished. 

25.  Its  surplus  honey  receptacle  should  be  as  close  to  the 
brood  as  possible. 

26.  A  complete  hive,  while  possessing  all  these  requisites, 
should,  if  possible,  combine  them  in  a  cheap  and  simple  form, 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  all  who  are  competent  to  cultivate 
bees. 


140  THE    BEE-HIVES. 

281.  There  are  a  few  desirables  to  which  a  hive,  even  if 
it  were  perfect,  could  make  no  pretensions! 

It  could  not  promise  splendid  results  to  those  who  are  too 
ignorant  or  too  careless  to  be  entrusted  with  the  manage- 
ment of  bees.  In  bee-keeping,  as  in  all  other  pursuits,  man 
must  first  understand  his  business,  and  then  proceed  upon  the 
good  old  maxim,  that  "the  hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich." 
^^In  a  word,  to  succeed  it  is  indispensable  to  know  what  to  do, 
and  to  do  it  just  in  time/'—{^.  Wagner). 

It  could  not  have  the  talismanic  influence  to  convert  a  bad 
situation  for  honey  into  a  good  one;  or  give  the  Apiarist  an 
abundant  harvest,  whether  the  season  was  productive  or  other- 
wise. As  well  might  the  farmer  seek  for  some  kind  of  wheat 
which  will  yield  an  enormous  crop,  in  any  soil,  and  in  every 
season. 

It  could  not  enable  the  cultivator,  while  rapidly  multiply- 
ing his  colonies,  to  secure  the  largest  yield  of  honey  from  his 
bees.  As  well  might  the  breeder  of  poultry  pretend,  that  in 
the  same  year,  and  from  the  same  stock,  he  can  both  raise  the 
greatest  number  of  chickens,  and  sell  the  largest  number  of 
eggs. 

MOVABLE-COMB    HiVES. 

282.  The  bee-keepers  of  Greece  and  of  Candia  seem  to 
have  been  the  first  to  provide  their  hives  with  movable  bars, 
under  which  bees  suspended  their  combs.  Delia  Rocca  men- 
tions these  and  gives  engravings  of  them  in  his  work,  pub- 
lished in  1790.  In  1838,  Dzierzon  revived  this  hive  and 
improved  it.  In  spite  of  the  difficulty  of  its  management, 
since  the  combs  not  being  attached  to  movable-frames,  but 
to  top  bars,  cannot  be  removed  without  cutting  them  loose 
from  the  sides  of  the  hive,  Dzierzon  succeeded  in  making 
discoveries,  in  bee  physiology,  which  rank  among  the  most 
important  (132).     His  success  was  marvelous  for  the  epoch. 

283.  But  in  the  Dzierzon  hive,  it  is  often  necessary  to  cut 
and  remove  many  combs  to  get  access  to  a  particular  one;  thus 
if  the  tenth   from  the  end  is  to  be  removed,   nine  must  be 


Plate  14. 


M.  QUIXBY, 

Author  of  ''The  Mustcrlcs  of  Bee- Keeping.'" 

This  writer  is  mentioned  pages  141,    151.   154,    155,   157,  158,    164,   IT- 

193,    378. 


MOVABLE-FRAME   HIVES. 


141 


taken  out.  This  hive  cannot  furnish  the  surplus  honey  in  a 
form  the  most  salable  in  our  markets,  or  admitting  of  safe 
transportation  in  the  comb.  Notwithstanding  these  disad- 
vantages, it  has  achieved  a  great  triumph  m  Germany,  and 
given  a  new  impulse  to  the  cultivation  of  bees. 

Movable-Frame  Hives. 

284.  About  one  hmidred  years  ago,  Huber  invented  the 
leaf-hive,  which  enabled  him  to  make  his  discoveries.  It  con- 
sisted of  twelve  frames,  each  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  width, 


Fig.   58. 

THE    HXTBER  LEAF   HIVE. 

which  were  connected  together  by  hhiges,  so  that  they  could 
be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure,  like  the  leaves  of  a  book. 

285.  This  hive  was  improved  upon  by  several  bee-keepers 
in  Europe  and  America,  themost  noted  of  whom  were  Quinby, 
and  his  son-in-law,  L.  C.  Root,  author  and  publisher  of 
"Quinby's  Xew  Bee-keeping."  This  style  of  hive  is  generally 
known  as  the  closed-end  standing- frame  hive.  The  reader  will 
understand  that,  in  these  hives,  the  combs  liang  separately  in 
frames,  which,  when  joined  together,  make  a  body,  enclosed 
in    an    outer    covering.      Their   being   used   by   a   number  of 


142  THE    BEE-HIVES. 

Apiarists,  shows  that  these  hives  have  some  advantages,  the 
greatest  objection  to  them  being  the  difficulty  of  fitting  the 
frames  together,  after  inspection,  without  crushing  some  bees, 
unless  they  have  been  previously  shaken  out. 

286.  Several  attempts  were  made,  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  to  invent  a  practical  hanging-frame  hive; 
that  is,  a  hive  in  which  each  comb,  hanging  in  a  separate 
frame,  could  be  readily  taken  out  and  replaced  without  jarring 
the  hive,  or  removing  the  other  frames.  Propokovitsch,  in 
Russia,  Munn,  in  England,  Debeauvoys,  in  France,  tried  and 
failed.  At  last,  in  October,  1851,  Mr.  Langstroth  invented  the 
top-openmg  movable-frame  hive,  now  used  the  world  over 
Avith  slight  variations,  in  which  the  combs  are  attached  to 
movable  frames  so  suspended  in  the  hives  as  to  touch  neither 
the  top,  bottom,  nor  sides;  leaving,  between  the  frames  and 
the  hive  walls,  a  space  of  from  one-fourth  to  three-eighths  of 
an  inch,  called  bee-space.        (Fig.  59.) 

287.  By  this  device  the  combs  can  be  removed  at  pleas- 
ure, without  any  cutting,  and  speedily  transferred  to  another 
hive.  Our  congenial  friend.  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook,  author  of  "The 
Bee-keepei*'s  Guide,"  says  of  it :  "It  is  this  hive,  the  greatest 
apiarian  invention  ever  made,  that  has  placed  American 
Apiculture  in  advance  of  that  of  all  other  countries."  And 
no  one  knows,  better  than  the  revisers  of  this  work,  that  such 
is  the  plain  truth,  as  they  have  watched  the  progress  of 
bee-keeping  in  Europe,  through  its  French.  Italian,  Swiss, 
and  German  bee-papers,  for  forty  years  past. 

288.  Mr.  Langstroth,  however,  modestly  disclaimed  the 
idea  of  having  attained  perfection  in  his  hive.     He  wrotfe: 

''Having  carefully  studied  the  nature  of  the  honey-bee,  for 
many  years,  and  compared  my  observations  with  those  of  writ- 
ers and  cultivators  who  have  spent  their  lives  in  extending  the 
sphere  of  apiarian  knowledge,  I  have  endeavored  to  remedy  the 
many  difficulties  with  which  bee-culture  is  beset,  by  adapting 
ray  invention  to  the  actual  habits  and  wants  of  the  insect.  I 
have  also  tested  the  merits  of  this  hive  by  long  and  continued 
experiments,  made  on  a  large  scale,  so  that  I  might  not.  by  de- 


MOVABLE-FRAME   HIVES. 


1-43 


ceiving  both  myself  aud  others,  add  another  to  the  useless  con- 
trivances which  have  deluded  and  disgusted  a  too  credulous 
iniblic.     I  would,  however,  utterly  repudiate  all  claims  to  hav- 


Hiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiii  nil  III! iiiiiHilHI 
Fig.   oJ 

ORIGINAL     LAXGSTROTH    HIVE. 

h,b,  front  and  rear  of  hive  ;  d.d,  pieces  forming  the  rabbets  for  the 
frames  to  rest  upon  ;  c,c,  sides  of  hive  ;  f,  movable  cover  ;  u,u,t,  movable 
frame. 

ing  devised  even  a  perfect  bee-hive.  Perfection  belongs  only 
to  the  works  of  Him,  to  whose  omniscient  eye  were  present  all 
causes  and  effects,  with  all  their  relations,  when  He  spake,  and 
from  nothing  formed  the  Universe.  For  man  to  stamp  the  label 
of  perfection  upon  any  work  of  his  own,  is  to  show  both  his 
folly  and  presumption. ' ' 


144 


THE    BEE-HIVES. 


289.  A  short  time  after  the  issuing  of  the  Langstroth 
patent,  the  Baron  Von  Berlepseh,  of  Seebach,  Thuringia, 
invented  frames  of  a  somewhat  simliar  character.  Carl  T.  E. 
Von  Siebold,  Professor  of  Zoology  and  Comparative  Anatomy, 
in  the  University  of  Munich,  thus  speaks  of  these  frames: 


Fig.   60. 

UERLEPSCH    HIVE    WITH    BACK    CUSHION. 

(From   the   "Illustrierte   Bienenzeitung.") 


"As  the  lateral  adhesion  of  the  combs  built  down  from  the 
bars  frequently  rendered  their  removal  difficult,  Berlepsch  tried 
to  avoid  this  inconvenience,  in  a  very  ingenious  way,  by  sus- 
pending in  his  hives,  instead  of  the  bars,  small  quadrangular 
frames,  the  vacuity  of  which  the  bees  fill  up  with  their  comb, 
by  which  the  removal  and  suspension  of  the  combs  are  greatly 
facilitated,    and    altogether    such    a    convenient    arrangement    is 


movable-fra:me  hives. 


145 


given   to   the   Dzierzon-hive,    that    nothing   more   remains    to   be 
desired.''   (???) 

Mr.  Clieshire  (Bees  and  Bee-keeping,  2d  vol.  page  46)  was 
mistaken  in  attributing  to  Dzierzon  the  invention  of  the 
frame-hive,  for  Dzierzon  has  not  even  invented,  but  only  per- 
fected the  movable-eomb  hive  (282-283),  having  always,  to 
this  day,  been  opposed  to  frames.  So  the  German  hive  is 
knowTi  as  the  Berlepsch  hive. 

290.  For  years,  both  of  these  inventions  shared  equally 
the  attention  of  bee-keepers  in   Europe.     Berlepsch's  hive  is 


•0£Z 


Fig.   61. 
SHOWING     SOME     OF     THE     EARLY     IMPROVEMEXTS       OF      THE 
HIVE,    STILL    IN    USE    IN    SOME    SECTIONS. 


LANGSTROTH 


used  principally  in  Germany,  Italy,  and  part  of  Switzerland: 
Langstroth's  in  England,  France,  and  the  French-speaking 
part  of  Switzerland;  but  it  is  to  be  noted  that  hives  made  on 
the  principle  of  the  Langstroth  invention,  are  steadily  gaining 
ground  wherever  both  styles  are  used. 

291.  And  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  The  Berlepsch 
hive  opens  from  the  rear,  like  a  cupboard.  Two  stories  are 
used  for  the  brood,  and  the  third  for  surplus  honey.  This  is 
sometimes  separated  from  the  main  apartment  by  perforated 


146  THE   BEK-H1\ES. 

zinc  (467),  to  exclude  the  queen,  or  by  a  board  with  a  square 
liole  in  the  center.  The  frames  are  suspended,  in  grooves,  by 
the  ends  of  their  uppei'  bars,  and  have  to  be  taken  out  with 
pincers. 

292.  The  worst  feature  of  this  hive  is  that,  if  it  is  neces- 
sai-y  to  reach  the  last  frame,  every  one  of  the  others  has 
to  be  taken  out.  There  are  tw-enty  combs  in  the  brood-chamber. 
It  is  safe  to  say,  that  a  hive  built  on  the  Langstroth  principle, 
can  be  visited  five  times  more  rapidly,  than  a  hive  built  on 
the  Berlepsch  idea.  These  inconveniences,  coupled  with  the 
fact  that  the  brood  apartment  of  the  Berlepsch  hive  is  divided 
into  two  stories,  and  that  the  surplus  apartment  cannot  be 
enlarged,  ad  infinitum^  make  the  Berlepsch  hive  inferior;  and 
we  can  safely  predict  that  hives  with  movable  ceiling  will  some 
day  be  exclusively  used  throughout  the  world. 

293.  The  superiority  of  the  Langstroth  hive  is  so  evident 
that  we  were  not  suri3rised  to  read  in  the  Revue  Interna- 
tionale d' Apiculture,  Sept.,  1885 : 

"The  question  of  the  mobility  of  the  ceiling  was  discussed  at 
length  at  the  Bee-keepers'  Meeting  held  in  Milan,  Italy,  in 
September,  188.5.  Mr.  Cowman  and  I  were  unable  to  conceal  from 
the  Italian  bee-keepers  our  wonder  that  it  was  not  solved  for 
them,  as  it  has  been,  for  a  long  time,  in  the  countries  of  large 
production. 

*'We  can  predict,  and  without  any  fear  of  mistake,  that  the 
principles  on  which  the  Langstroth  hive  is  based  will  be  ad- 
mitted sooner  or  later  by  the  most  progressive  bee-keepers  of 
the  world." — (Ed.  Bertrand.) 

294.  In  1905,  an  Italian  Avriter,  speaking  of  the  Lang- 
stroth-Dadant  hive,  as  described  by  the  elder  Dadant,  calls 
it,  "the  preferred,  the  inteniational,  the  classic,  the  queen  of 
hives."     (Romagna  Agricola,  June,  1905.) 

295.  The  success  of  American  bee-culture,  in  the  last 
Mfty  years,  was  first  attributed,  by  European  bee-keepers,  to 
the  honey-producing  power  of  the  country;  but  the  most  in- 
telligent   Apiarists,   who   have   tried    the    American   methods, 


MUNABLE-FKAME   iliVES. 


147 


with  the  Laiigstroth  hive,  now  recognize  that  success  is  prin- 
cipally due  to  the  manipulations  that  it  permits. 

296.     Xav,  if  the  student  will  but  refer  to  a  former  edition 


Fig.   62. 

THE    GRAVENHORST    HIVE. 

(From    the    "lUusfrierte  Bienenzeitung.") 


Fig.    63. 

OLD  STANDARD  LAXGSTROTH  FRAME. 


of  this  very  book   (1859),  the  first  words  of  it  will  show  hini 
the  progress  accomplished  since  then: 

"Practical  bee-keeping  in  this  country  is  in  a  very  depressed 
ponditinn,  lacing  entirely  neglected  by  the  mass  of  those  most 


148 


THE   BEE-HIVES. 


^  2 


MOVABLE-FRAME   HIVES.  149 

favorably  situated  for  its  pursuit.  Notwithstanding  the  numer- 
ous hives  which  have  been  introduced,  the  ravages  of  the  bee- 
moth  have  increased,  and  success  is  becoming  more  and  more 
precarious.  While  multitudes  have  abandoned  the  pursuit  in 
disgust,  many  even  of  the  most  experienced  are  beginning  to 
suspect  that  all  the  so-called  'Improved  Hives'  are  delusions 
or  impostures;  and  that  they  must  return  to  the  simple  box 
or  hollow  log,  and  'take  up'  their  bees  with  sulphur  in  the 
old-fashioned  way." 

'^97.  Mr.  Graveiihorst,  also  a  German,  invented  a  mov- 
able-frame hive  made  of  straw.  We  give  a  cut  of  his  hive,  not 
that  it  has  any  praetiteal  importance  for  us,  but  because 
his  system  is  peculiar.  The  frames  are  removed  from  the 
bottom  so  that  in  order  to  examine  the  hive,  one  must  invert 
it.     There  is  no  separate  apartment  for  surplus  honey. 

298.  Although  the  movable  frame,  hanging  in  the  hive, 
by  projections  of  the  top  bar  (figs.  59,  63),  as  invented  by 
Mr.  Langstroth,  is  the  style  now  almost  universally  adopted, 
there  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinions  as  to  the  proper  size 
and  shape  of  the  frames,  and  the  number,  which  a  hive 
should  contain.  Hundreds  of  different  sizes  are  used  with 
success,  from  Maine  to  California,  and  from  Canada  to 
Texas. 

Frames  as  short  as  IIV2  inches  are  used,  but  the  standard 
size  is  still  the  Langstroth,  the  standard  frame  of  America. 

A  frame  which  is  now  very  highly  recommended  by  a  num- 
ber of  bee-keei)ers  and  sold  by  most  manufacturers  in  Ameri- 
ca is  the  "Hoff mail  frame"  (fig.  65).  The  frames  touch  one 
another  in'  the  upper  third  of  their  side  bars  and  are  thus 
spaced.  The  advantage  claimed  for  these  is  that  any  be- 
ginner can  use  them  without  running  the  risk  of  putting  too 
many  or  too  few  in  a  hive,  a  mistake  sometimes  made  by 
novices,  and  also  that  they  can  be  handled  in  twos  or  threes 
without  dilRculty.  These  advantages  seem  to  us  much  over- 
balanced by  the  fact  that  it  is  difficult  to  put  the  frames 
together  in  a  populous  hive  without  crushing  some  bees.  "Wlien 
a  hive  is  opened  to  ascertain  its  condition,  it  is  usually  ne<jes- 


150 


THE    BEE-HIVES. 


saiy  to  look  over  eveiy  part  of  it.  The  help  gained  by  being 
able  to  handle  two  or  three  frames  at  a  time  is  therefore  more 
imaginary  than  real. 

Mr.  E.  R.  Root,  the  well-known  editor  of  Gleanings  in  Bee 
Culture,  who  has  been  the  most  active  supporter  of  this  frame, 
in  replj"  to  a  correspondent  who  complained  of  the  frame,  in 
Gleanings  for  November  1st,  1905,  page  1127,  acknowledges 
that  the  Hoffman  frame  is  unsuited  to  localities  where  much 
propolis  is  used  by  the  bees,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  separat- 
ing the  frames  when  glued  together. 

Another  veiy  strong  objection  which  has  been  raised  against 


Fig.    65. 

HOFFMAN    FRAMES. 

('The  A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture. "■) 

the  Hoffman  frame  is  that  it  cannot  be  manufacturetl  hi  a 
small  shop,  as  it  requires  special  tools  to  manufacture  it.  This 
may  not  have  much  weight  with  the  up-to-date  Apiarist,  but 
it  has  been  our  aim  to  recommend  the  simplest  and  most 
practical  implements,  if  effective,  and  we  consider  this  ob- 
jection as  a  weighty  one,  when  added  to  other  objections.  The 
main  desideratum  attained  by  the  use  of  the  Hoffman  frame, 
namely  the  s]iacing  of  the  combs  hi  a  practical  and   stable 


Plate  16. 


E.  R.  ROOT, 

Son  of  A.  I.  Root,  Reviser  of  ''The  A  B  C  and  X  Y  Z  of  Bee- 
Culture,'^  Editor  of  ''Gleanings  in  Bee-Culture,*^ 
This  writer  is  mentioned  pages  150,   151,  326,  481,  482. 


MOVABLE-FRAME  HIVES. 


151 


way,    can   be   attained   by    other   methods   which   will   be   de- 
scribed farther. 

299.  The  "Hanging  Quinby''  (fig.  68)  is  the  frame  pre- 
ferred by  the  writers.  The  "Gallup"  frame  is  used  with  suc- 
cess by  such  practical  Apiarists  as  G.  M.  Doolittle.  The 
closed-end-Quinby  and  the  Danzenbaker  frames  are  not  hang- 
ing frames,  but  the  former  is  much  used  by  New  York  State 
Apiarists  and  the  latter  is  the  frarae  preferred  by  E.  R.  Root. 
It  is  a  very  shallow  frame. 


Fig.  ee. 

DANZENCAKEP.    rr.AMES. 

("The  A  B  C  of  Bee  Cuture.") 


300.  It  is  evident  that  profit  can  be  derived  from  bee- 
culture  with  almost  any  style  of  frame;  but  it  is  certain  also, 
that,  in  eveiy  pursuit,  some  conditions  produce  better  effects 
than  others,  under  the  same  circumstances. 

In  apiculture,  as  in  everything  else,  we  should  try  to  ob- 
tain the  best  results  with  the  least  labor  and  expense,  and 
these  can  only  be  attained  by  studying  the  habits  of  the  bee, 
and  complying  ^^th  them,  as  far  as  is  practicable. 

The  combs  of  the  brood-chamber,  or  main  apartment  of  the 
hive,  are  used  by  the  bees  to  raise  their  young,  and  to  store 
their  food  for  Winter.  The  size  of  frames  must  be  consid- 
ered, with  reference  to  this. 

301.  We  have  seen    (153)   that  the  queen  lays  her  egg^s 


151 


THE   BEE-HP'ES. 


ill  a  circle.  In  fact,  it  is  necessary  that  she  should  do  so, 
in  order  to  lose  no  time  in  hunting  for  cells;  else  how  could 
she  \'dy  three  thousand  eg-gs,  or  more,  per  day*?  A  veiy 
shallow  frame  will  break  the  circle,  and  compel  her  to  lose 
time.  In  a  comb  five  inches  deep,  for  instance,  and  fifteen 
or  sixteen  inches  long,  the  largest  circular  area  contains  less 
than  twenty  square  inches,  or  five  hundred  and  fifty  worker- 
cells  on  each  side.  \Yhen  these  are  occupied  with  eggs,  the 
queen,  while  hunting  for  empty  cells,  will  find  wood  above 
and  below,  instead  of  comb,  at  every  half  turn,  and  will  lose 
not  only  time,  but  eggs ;  for,  in  the  busy  season,  her  eggs  have 
to  drop,  like  mature  fruit,  if  not  laid  in  the  cells.  Loss  of 
eggs  is  loss  of  bees;  loss  of  bees  at  the  proper  time  is  loss  of 
honey. 

1502.     A   two-stoiy  shallow  brood-chamber  is  objectionable 


i^isl 


m 


m 


H  G 

Fig.   67. 

DIAGRAMS    OF    GALLUP    AND    LANGSTROTH    HIVES, 

(From  the  "A   B  C  of  Bee-Culture.") 

for  the  same  reason.  Besides,  the  bees  which  cover  the  brood 
and  keep  it  warm,  must  also  keep  warm  the  lower  bar  of  the 
top  frame,  the  upper  bar  of  the  lower  frame,  and  the  space 
between  the  two,  Avithout  deriving  any  benefit  from  such  an 
arrangement.  This  division  of  the  brood-combs,  into  two 
shallow  stories,  is  one  of  the  causes  which  prevent  the  bee- 
keepers of  Germany  from  raising  as  many  bees,  in  their  hives, 
as  we  do  here  in  the  ordinary  Langstroth  hives.  This  disad- 
vantage was  so  evident  that  the  bee-keepers  of  Switzerland, 
who  had  adopted,  as  a  standard,  the  Berlepsch  hive  (fig.  60), 
decided  to  replace  the  double  story  by  a  single  one  of  the 
same  dimension,  as  the  Italian  bee-keepers  had  done  before, 
but  for  half  the  hive  only. 


.MOVABLE-FRAME  HIVES.  153 

A  short  frame  like  the  Gallup  (tig.  67),  presents  another 
objection,  the  cluster  being-  divided  among  a  greater  number 
of  frames. 

"For  Winter,  it  is  evident  that  the  sides  of  the  clusters 
A.  B.  and  C.  D.  (fig.  67)  are  better  protected  than  the  ends 
G.  H.  and  E.  F.,  and  also  that  the  long  frames  protect  the 
center  of  the  brood-nest  much  better  than  the  short  ones." — 
("A  B  C") 

Even  a  cross-bar  through  a  frame  (fig.  59)  will  hinder 
the  laying  of  the  queen,  so  that  brood  will  .often  be  raised  only 
on  one  side  of  it.     Any  one  can  easily  tiy  this. 

303.  From  the  foregoing,  it  appears  that  a  square  frame 
is  the  best  for  breeding.  But  square  frames  are  objectionable. 
If  they  are  small,  they  do  not  have  enough  space  in  each 
frame  for  Winter  supplies,  above  or  behind  the  brood.  If 
they  are  large,  they  are  unhandy,  and  their  depth  makes  them 
difficult  to  take  out  without  crushing  bees.  We  have  used 
some  sixty  hives,  American  frames,  12%xl2%,  for  many 
years,  and  this  is  our  greatest  objection  to  them. 

304.  A  dcGper  frame  is  still  more  objectionable  for  the 
same  reason,  and  because  the  surplus  cases  on  top  are  too  re- 
mote from  the  brood.  (278.)  In  early  Sprmg,  the  bees  have 
more  difficulty  in  keeping  the  lower  end  of  such  frames  warm, 
as  the  heat  always  rises,  and  a  part  of  it  is  wag-ted,  warming 
up  the  stores,  which  in  this  hive  are  all  above  the  brood.  In 
hot  weather,  the  combs  are  also  more  apt  to  break  down  from 
heat  and  weight  combmed.  Such  a  hive  is  deficient  in  top- 
surface  for  the  storing  of  honey  in  boxes. 

305.  It  is  thus  evident  that  Mr.  Langstroth  and  Mr.  Quin- 
bj^  were  right  in  using  frames  of  greater  length  than  depth, 
especially  as  these  frames  allow  of  more  surplus  room  above 
the  brood,  a  matter  of  some  importance. 

306.  But  we  must  beware  of  excess  in  anything.  A 
shallow  frame  has  too  little  honey  above  the  cluster  in  Win- 
ter, and  in  long  cold  Winters,  like  that  of  1884-5,  a  great 
many  bees  die  for  want  of  food  above  them,  in  hives  con- 


154  THE   BEE-HIVKS. 

taiuing  plenty  of  honey,  the  combs,  hack  of  the  cluster,  being 
too  cold. 

The  Langstroth-Simplicity  frame  is  long  enough,  but  hardly 
deep  enough.  The  Quinby  frame  is  deep  enough,  but  would 
be  better  if  a  little  shorter. 

307.  We  have  used  on  a  large  scale  Quinby,  American 
and  Standard  Langstroth-sized  frames  for  years,  and  have 
obtained  better  results  from  the  Quinby,  both  for  wintering- 
out  of  doors,  and  for  honey  producing.  Yet,  the  Lang- 
stroth-Simplicity  being  the  standard  frame  of  America,  we 
would  hesitate  to  advise  any  Apiarist  to  change  from  this 
size;  knowing,  by  practical  experience,  how  annoying  it  is, 
not  to  have  all  frames  and  all  hives  in  one  apiaiy  uniform  in 
size. 

But  we  would  counsel  beginners  to  use  the  Quinby  size- 
especially  if  they  intend  to  winter  out-of-doors — or  at  least 
to  use  a  frame  as  long  as  the  standard  Langstroth  and  as 
deep  as  the  Quinby. 

The  recommendation  which  we  make  of  the  Quinby  size 
of  frame  is  not  a  hasty  one.  This  frame  has  been  tested  by 
us  for  years,  side  by  side  with  numerous  others,  for  Mr, 
Charles  Dadant  was  never  content  until  he  had  made  a  trial 
of  all  things  that  were  given  as  improvements.  He  tested 
triangular  frames  as  well  as  frames  that  approached  as  near 
to  the  circular  shape  as  was  possible  with  pine  lumber  as  a 
material  of  manufacture.  He  tried  deep  and  shallow  frames, 
small  and  large  frames,  ranging  in  size  from  0x6  inches  to 
18x18  inches.  So  the  reader  may  rest  assured  that  a  very 
thorough  practical  experience  caused  our  decision. 

308.  The  number  of  frames  to  be  used  in  a  hive  depends 
on  their  size;  for  w^e  should  manage  our  bees,  as  we  do  our 
other  domestic  animals,  and  give  them  as  much  space  as  is 
necessary  to  obtain  the  best  results.  What  would  we  think 
of  a  farmer  who  would  build  a  barn  without  first  consider- 
ing the  number  of  animals  and  the  amount  of  feed  which  he 
intended  to  shelter  in   if? 

309.  Many    hives    cannot   hold    one-quarter   of   the   bees, 


MOVABLE-FRAME   HIVES.  155 

comb,  and  honey  which,  in  a  good  season,  may  be  found  in 
large  ones;  while  their  owners  wonder  that  they  obtain  so 
little  profit  from  their  bees.  A  good  swarm  of  bees,  put, 
in  a  good  season,  mto  a  diminutive  hive,  may  be  compared 
to  a  powerful  team  of  horses  harnessed  to  a  baby  wagon,  or 
a  noble  fall  of  water  wasted  in  turnmg  a  petty  water-wheel. 
As  the  harvest  of  honey  is  always  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  bees  in  the  hive,  and  as  a  large  colony  requires 
no  more  labor  from  the  Apiarist  than  a  small  one,  the  hive 
should  afford  the  queen  sufficient  space  to  deposit  all  the 
eggs,  which  she  is  able  to  lay  during  twenty-one  days,  the 
average  time  for  an  egg  to  be  transformed  into  a  worker. 
Besides,  it  should  contain  a  certain  amount  of  food,  honey  and 
pollen.  It  is  unquestionable  that  the  quality  of  a  queen  de- 
pends on  the  quantity  of  eggs  that  she  is  able  to  lay.  Then 
why  limit  her,  by  using  hives  so  narrow  that  she  cannot  de- 
velop her  fertility? 

310.  We  have  seen  before  (97)  that  a  good  queen  can 
lay  3,500  eggs  per  day  in  the  good  season,  so  that  73,500  cells 
may  be  occupied  with  brood  at  one  time.  If  Ave  add  to  this 
number  about  20,000  cells  for  the  provisions  needed  in  the 
breeding  season,  we  have  about  94,000  cells  as  the  number  re- 
quired for  a  strong  colony.  As  eveiy  square  inch  of  comb 
contains  about  55  cells  (217),  27  to  28  on  each  side,  the 
combs  of  a  hive  should  measure  over  1,700  square  inches.  This 
space  nuist,  of  course,  allow  of  contraction,  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  colony  by  what  is  called  movable  division  boards. 
(349) 

311.  As  a  Quinby  frame  measures  1S9  square  inches  in- 
side, a  hive  should  contain  at  least  9  of  these  frames. 

As  the  Standard  Langstroth-Simplicity  frame  measures 
about  149  square  inches,  the  hive  must  contain  12  frames.  The 
American  frames  must  number  12,  and  the  Gallup  14. 

312.  We  know  that  many  Apiarists  object  to  these  fig- 
ures, because  they  succeed,  and  harvest  good  crops,  with 
smaller  hives.  But  figures,  based  on  facts,  cannot  lie.  Smaller 
hives  will  do  only  in   localities,  where  late  Springs  and  short 


150  THE    BEE-HIVES. 

iioney  crops  make  it  impussible  ior  the  queen  to  lay  to  the 
utmost  of  her  capacity,  before  the  time  when  her  bees  would 
be  usefuL 

It  is  perhaps  necessaiy  to  say  here,  that  we  have  found  more 
opposition  on  this  subject  than  on  any  other,  especially  in 
ihe  bee-papers.  But  we  take  this  opportunity  of  again  ener- 
yeticallif  asserting  that  our  preference  for  large  hives  is  based 
on  a  successful  practice  of  more  than  forty  years,  with  sev- 
eral hundred  colonies  in  different  sized  hives. 

Men  of  great  experience  and  success,  like  Doctor  C.  C. 
Miller,  who  use  eight-frame  Langstroth  hives,  manage  to 
secure  the  fullest  breeding  of  prolific  queens,  before  the  open- 
ing of  the  honey  harvest,  by  adding  another  brood  chamber 
when  the  queen  has  filled  the  first.  This  additional  brood 
chamber  is  removed  at  the  time  of  putting  on  the  supers  and 
the  combs  of  brood  are  divided  among  weaker  colonies,  if 
there  are  too  many  of  them  to  fill  one  brood  chamber. 

This  is  the  only  way  in  which  full  results  may  be  achieved 
with   small  hives. 

313.  It  is  only  by  testing  different  sizes  of  hives  and 
frames  side  by  side,  for  years,  on  a  large  scale,  and  with 
the  same  management,  as  we  have  done,  that  the  compari- 
son can  be  made  serviceable.  Our  experiments  prove  also 
that  small  frames  impede  the  laying  of  the  queen.  The 
hrood-chamher  of  a  large  hive  can  easily  he  reduced  in  size, 
if  need  he;  hut  a  small  hive  cannot  he  enlarged  at  icill,  except 
hy  the  addition  of  upper  stories,  ivhich  should  properly  he 
devoted  to  the  storing  of  honey. 

314.  In  addition  to  the  disadvantages  of  small  frames 
and  small  hives  already  enumerated,  another— and  the  great- 
est of  all— is  the  excess  of  natural  swarming  whicli  they 
cause.  The  leading  advocates  of  small  hives,  some  of  w^hom 
are  large  honey  producers,  invariably  acknowledge  that  they 
have  too  much  natural  sivarming ;  nor  is  it  to  be  wondered  at, 
since  swarming  is  mainly  caused  by  the  lack  of  breeding 
room  for  the  queen.   (106.) 

315.  The   main    criterion    of   a    liood    farnici-   is    the   awe 


MONABLE-FRAME  HIVES.  157 

that  he  takes  to  improve  his  stock,  by  selecting  the  best  ani- 
mals as  reproducers.  If  we  use  hives  so  narrow  that  we 
cannot  discern  which  are  our  most  prolific  queens,  and  that 
they  incite  natural  swarming,  we  are  unable  to  improve  our 
bees  by  selection.     (452,  511.) 

316.  The  distance  between  frames  from  center  to  center 
can  be  varied  from  1%  inches  to  l^^  in  the  breedmg  apart- 
ment, of  which  we  are  now  treating.  In  the  surplus  cases,  it 
may  be  made  much  greater. 

317.  The  distance  of  11/2  inches,  advised  by  Mr.  Quinby, 
is  preferable  for  two  reasons: 

1st,  It  facilitates  the  taking  out  of  the  combs,  giving  a 
little  more  room  to  handle  them,  and  thus  aids  in  inter- 
changing combs,  which  may  have  slight  irregularities;  when 
such  changes  are  necessary  to  help  weak  colonies  with  brood 
or  honey  from  stronger  ones. 

2nd,  It  gives  more  room  between  brood-combs  for  the  bees 
to  cluster  in  Winter,  and  a  "greater  thickness  of  honey  above 
them,  thereby  placing  the  bees  in  better  condition  for  Winter. 

318.  The  frames  must  be  properly  distanced  m  the  hive, 
and  the  combs  must  be  built  straight  in  them;  for  a  movable- 
frame  hive,  with  crooked  combs,  is  worse  than  a  hive  without 
any  frames. 

319.  The  building  of  straight  combs  in  the  frames  was 
formerly  tolerably  secured  by  the  use  of  a  triangular  wooden 
guide  fastened  to  the  mider  side  of  the  top  bar  of  the  frame, 
and  which  the  bees  follow  in  most  instances.  Something  of 
this  kind  was  mentioned  by  Delia  Rocca  as  early  as  1790. 
("Traite  Complet  sur  les  Abeilles.") 

320.  A  metallic  stamp  was  invented  by  Mr.  Mehring,  of 
Bavaria,  Germany,  for  printing  or  stamping  the  shape  of  the 
comhs  upon  the  mider  side  of  the  top  bar  of  the  frames. 
After  the  outlines  were  made  he  rubbed  melted  wax  over 
them,  and  scraped  off  all  that  did  not  sink  into  the  de- 
pressions. Mr.  Mehrmg  represented  this  device  as  enabling 
)iim  to  dispense  Avith  guide  combs,  the  bees  appearing  to  be 


15S 


THE   BEE-IIIVKS. 


delighted  to  have  their  work  thus  accurately  sketched  out  for 
them.*  In  practice  it  was  found  to  be  inferior  to  the  tri- 
angular comb  guides. 

321.  Pieces  of  worker-comb,  glued  to  the  under  side  of 
the  top  bar  with  melted  wax,  were  used  successfully.  But  the 
introduction  of  comb-foundation  (674)  has  finally  given  us 
the  means  of  securing  straight  combs  at  all  times,  and  it  may 
be  used,  for  this  purpose,  in  such  narrow  strips,  that  its  cost 
cannot  be  an  objection.' 


Fig.  68. 

MOVABLE    FRAME    WITH    FOUNDATION    GUIDE. 


IVZ2.  As  stated  before  (299),  the  frame  that  we  use  is 
similar  in  size  and  shape  to  the  Quinby  hanging  frame,  a  little 
longer  and  a  little  deeper  than  the  regular  Langstroth  frame, 
tig.  68.  The  exact  sizle  of  these  frames  is  given  in  diagram, 
fig.  72. 

323.  All  the  parts  of  the  movable  frames  should  be  cut 
out  by  circular  saws,  and  the  measurement  should  be  exact, 
.so  that  the  frames  when  nailed  together  may  be  square.     If 


♦This    inventicu    should    not   be    confused    with    that    of    comb-founda- 
ticn,  made  a  few  years  later  by  the  same  distinguished   Apiarist.      (677) 


MOVABLE-FRAME   HIVES. 


159 


they  are  not  strong  and  perfectly  square,  the  proper  working; 
of  the  hive  will  be  greatly  interfered  with. 

324.  The  underside  of  the  top-bar  may  be  cut  to  a  tri- 
angular edge,  which  bees  usually  follow  readily  in  building 
combs.  But  comb  foundation  strips  are  now  used  almost 
altogether,  and  a  groove,  with  wedge  as  in  fig.  69,  will  be 
found  very  much  more  serviceable.  Above  all,  the  outside 
measurements  of  the  frames  must  be  carefully  preserved,  no 
matter  what  style  of  hive  and  frame  we  use. 


Fig.     69. 

FRAME    WITH    GROOVE    FOR    FOUNDATION. 


325.  The  width  of  the  top  bar  has  something  to  do  with 
the  amount  of  bridges  and  brace  combs  (397),  built  by  the 
bees,  between  the  brood-chamber  and  the  upper  stories.  A 
wide  top  bar,  leaving  but  a  narrow  space  for  passage  above, 
will  almost  altogether  prevent  the  building  of  bridges.  For 
that  reason,  we  make  our  top  bars  l^/g  inches  in  width.     Yet 


160  THh:    BEE- HIVES. 

in  producing-  extracted  bonej'   {7-l^)  these  bridges  and  brace 
combs  do  not  annoy  much. 

326.  It  is  necessary  that  the  hive  should  always  slant 
fonvard,  toward  the  entrance,  when  occupied  by  bees,  to 
facilitate  the  carrying  out  of  dead  bees  and  other  useless 
substances,  to  aid  the  colony  in  protecting  itself  against 
robbers,  to  carry  off  moisture,  and  prevent  rain  from  beat- 
ing into  the  hive. 

327.  For  this,  and  other  reasons,  the  combs  should  run 
from  front  to  rear,— so  as  to  hang  perpendicularly,— and  not 
from  side  to  side  as  they  do  in  the  Berlepsch  hive. 

328.  The  Langstroth  hive,  from  the  simple  form  given 
in  fig.  59,  was  improved  upon  in  many  different  ways.  The 
Standard  Langstroth  hive  has  been   for  a   long  time   a   hive 


Fig  70. 

VAN     DEUSEX     CLAMP. 

with  portico,  honey-board,  permanent  bottom-board,  and  ten 
frames. 

329.  The  movable  honey-board,  between  the  brood- 
chamber  and  the  upper  stories,  has  been  discarded  of  late 
years,  the  great  objection  to  honey -boards  being  that  the  bees 
glue  them,  and  build  small  pieces  of  comb  or  bridges,  in  the 
space  between  them  and  the  frames;  the  jar  of  their  break- 
ing, when  the  honey-board  is  removed,  angering  the  bees. 

330.  The  permanent  bottom-board  has  lost  favor  with  the 
great  majority  of  bee-keepers,  and  is  now  replaced  by  mova- 
ble bottom-boards  adjustable  at  will.  The  Van  Deusen  hive- 
clamp  (fig.  70),  is  used  by  many  Apiarists  for  fastening 
movable  bottoms  or  additional  stories.  We  have  discarded 
llio    permanent    bottom-board,    owing    to    the    difficulty    of 


iIOVABLE-FHA.MK   JIIVKS.  lOl 

Ijromptly  cleaning'  it  of  dead  bees  and  rubbish,  when  remov- 
ing bees  from  the  cellar  in  Spring-,  or  after  a  hard  winter 
passed  out  of  doors. 


Fig.  71. 

IIIVE^    WITir     EXTRACTING     SUPERS     SET     BACK     FOR     VEXTILATIOX     IX     VERY 
HOT    WEATHER. 

The  cap   is  thrown  back   to   shew  the   straw  mat. 


162  THE    BEE-HIVES. 

331.  In  the  ventilation  of  the  hive,  we  should  endeavor,  as 
far  as  possible,  to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  bees,  under  a '.I 
the  vaiying  circumstances  to  which  they  are  exposed  in  our 
micertain  climate,  whose  severe  extremes  of  temperature 
forcibly  impress   upon   the  bee-keeper,   the  maxim  of  Viriril, 

''Utraque   vis  pariter  apibus  metueiula. " 
"Extremes  of  heat  or  cold    alike  are  hurtful  to  the  bees." 

332.  To  be  useful  to  the  majority  of  bee-keepers,  artificial 
ventilation  must  be  simple,  and  not  as  in  Nutt's  hive,  and 
other  labored  contrivances,  so  complicated  as  to  require  almost 
as  close  supenision  as  a  hot-bed  or  green-house. 

333.  AVith  an  independent  bottom-board,  ventilation  can 
be  given  to  any  amount  by  raising  the  hive,  as  in  fig.  71,  or 
even  more.  By  furnishing  ventilation  independent  of  the 
entrance,  above  the  brood-chamber,  or  between  the  differ- 
cMit  surplus  apartments,  if  necessaiy,  we  improve  upon  the 
method  which  bees,  in  a  state  of  nature,  are  compelled  to 
adept,  when  the  openings  in  their  hollow  trees  are  so  small, 
that  they  must  employ,  in  hot  weather,  a  larger  force  in  ven- 
tilation, than  would  otherwise  be  necessaiy. 

It  has  been  held  that  an  upp^^r  entrance  to  the  brood- 
chamber  (fig.  71),  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  super  room,  is 
an  infallible  preventive  of  swarming.  It  is,  at  least,  a  veiy 
great  help  towards  this  result. 

335.  The  bees,  finding  their  home  more  pleasant,  will 
cease  to  cluster  on  the  outside,  as  long  as  there  ^vi\\  be 
h<»ney  to  gather,  arid  room  to  store  it  in. 

336.  On  the  other  hand,  by  the  use  of  movable  blocks, 
the  entrance  maj'  be  kept  so  small,  in  cool  weather,  that  only 
a  .single  bee  can  go  in  at  once,  or  it  may  be  entirely  closed. 

While  sufficient  airing  must  be  given,  the  supply  should 
be  controlled,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  brood  by  admitting 
too  strong  a  current  of  chilly  air.  In  the  chapter  on  win- 
tering    bees,     directions     are     given     for     placing     absorb- 


MOVABLE-FRAME   HIVES.  163 

ents  ill  the  upper  stoiy,  in  the  winter,  so  as  to  eariy  off  all 
superfluous    moisture    (636),    without    injurious   ventilation. 

337.  For  the  benefit  of  begmners,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  add,  that  the  bees  will  giue  up  with  propolis  (236),  and 
sooner  or  later  entirely  close  any  ventilatmg  holes  through 
which  they  cannot  pass.  Hence  air  holes,  covered  with  wire 
cloth,  miss  their  purpose  altogether.  In  the  same  manner, 
and  with  a  great  deal  of  labor,  bees  will  try  to  close  any 
upper  entrances,  such  as  that  of  fig.  71,  if  these  remain  open, 
when  not  needed  for  the  welfare  of  the  colony. 

338.  The  portico  (fig.  64)  of  the  Langstroth  hive  has 
advantages,  and  disadvantages,  which  about  balance  one  an- 
other. Its  advantages  are,  that  it  shelters  the  bees  from  rain 
in  Summer,  and  from  cold  and  snow  in  Winter.  Its  disad- 
vantages are,  that  it  sometimes  harbors  enemies  of  bees,  moths, 
spiders,  etc.,  etc.,  and  sometimes  helps  to  hide  the  queen  from 
the  Apiarist's  diligent  search.  It  hinders  the  bee-keeper 
when  he  wants  to  watch  closely  the  sport  of  bees  before  the 
entrance. 

339.  An  entrance  block,  e,  fig.  73,  is  used  to  reduce  the 
entrance  of  weak  colonies  in  Spring  or  at  any  time  when 
robbing  is  feared   (668),  or  when  warmth  is  desired. 


The  Hive  We  Prefer. 

340.  The  diagram  we  give  (fig.  72),  of  the  hive  we  pre- 
fer to  all  others,  can  be  taken  as  a  pattern  for  any  other 
size,  by  changing  the  size  of  the  pieces  and  retaining  only 
the  exact  distances  between  the  frames  and  the  body,  and 
the  height  of  the  entrance.  Its  details  can  be  varied  ad 
infinitum.  It  can  hold  eleven  frames,  but  generally  we  use 
only  nine  frames  and  two  contracting,  or  division-boards,  or 
ten  frames  and  one  division-board.     (349.) 

This  hive,  in  the  dimensions  given,  is  not  a  new,  untried 
pattern.     We  have  used  several  hundreds  of  them  for  years, 


164 


THE   liEE-lllVES. 


Fig.  72. 

DIAGRAM    OF    OUR    HIVE. 

AA,  cross-pieces  to  support  the  bottom,  18x2x2.  B,  bottom,  25x17  VjX 
%.  C,  apron,  10x17 i,l>x%.  DD,  front  and  rear  of  the  hive,  16V,xl2i4x 
%.  E,  entrance,  8x%.  F,  double  board  nailed  at  the  rear,  18Uxl3x 
%.  GG,  square  slats  to  support  the  cover.  H,  lath,  %xl%,  to  widen 
the  top  edge  of  the  front  board.  I,  top  bar  of  frame,  2014x1%  wide  x 
%  thick.  JJJJ,  rabbets  %  wide  x%  high,  dug  in  front  and  rear  boards, 
and  furnished  with  sheets  of  iron  %  inches  wide,  or  metal  spacers  pro- 
jecting \i  of  an  inch,  on  which  the  frame-shoulders  are  supported.  If 
the   grooves    are   not   provided   with   these,    their   size    should   be    V2X%. 

KKKK  shows  how  the  uprights  NN  of  the  frames  are  nailed  to  the  top 
bar.  M,  bottom  bar  of  the  frame,  17%x%x%.  NN,  sides  of  the  frame, 
lli/4x5-16x%.  PP,  front  and  rear  of  the  cap,  18y2x9xT{s.  RR,  front 
and  rear  of  the  surplus-box,  16i4x6%x%.  T,  empty  space  on 
top  of  the  surplus-box,  l^A  for  the  cloth  and  mat.  JJ,  top  bar 
of  the  surplus-frame,  same  as  top-bar  7.  V,  bottom  bar  of  the  surplus 
frame,  same  as  M.     YY,  sides  of  the  surplus  frames,  6xi/4x%. 

The  space  between  M  and  B  is  about  V^  inch ;  between  DN,  ND,  VI, 
RY,  YR,  should  be  Y^  to  %  of  an  inch.  Hives  of  every  size  can  be 
constructed  on  this  diagram,  with  the  only  caution  to  preserve  the 
spaces  of  the  width  indicated.  Beth  tcp  bars  are  grooved  on  the  under 
side  for  foundation  and  wedge  as  per  Fig.  69. 


HOVABLE-FKAME   HIVES.  165 

Avith  the  best  of  success.     It  is  used  extellsi^•e:y  by  mauy  large 
producers. 

341.     As  a  result   of   the  publication   of  this  book  hi   the 
French  and  Russian  languages,  this  hive  has  been  adopted  by 


Fig.   73. 

DADANT     HIVE^    OPEX. 

n,  front  of  the  hive;    h,  slanting  board;   c,  movable  block;  d,  cap;   r,, 
straw    mat  ;    f,   enamel   cloth  ;    g,  frame  with   foundation. 

progressive  bee-keepers  in  Europe,   in   Algeria,   and   even   in 
Asiatic  countries,  under  the  name  of  Dadant  hive. 

342.     The   movable   bottom-hoard    (tig.   72)    is  adjusted   or 
euca.'^ed    in    the  body   of  the   main   hive,   en   all   sides  but   the 


166 


tiif:  bee-hives. 


front,  to  shed  the  ram  and  better  protect  the  colony  against 
ants  and  moths.  It  projects  forward  three  inches,  at  least, 
to  support  an  adjustable  entrance-block.  Some  Apiarists 
use  a  tin  slide,  instead  of  an  entrarice-hlock.  "NVe  object  to 
it,  because,  if  glued  by  bees  it  may  be  bent  in  handling,  and 
if  it  is  mislaid,  it  cannot  always  be  promptly  replaced;  while 


Fig.    74. 

DADAXT    HIVE.     SETTING    FLAT    ON    THE    BOTTOM. 


any  square  wooden-block  can  take  the  place  of  the  entrance- 
block,  if  necessary. 

343.  The  apron^  or  slanting-board,  helps  overladen  work- 
ers to  reach  the  entrance,  when  they  have  fallen  to  the  ground. 
The  blocks  that  support  the  bottom,  may  be  made  of  unequal 
height,  so  as  to  give  the  hive  the  proper  forward   slant,  on 


MOVABLE-FRAME   HIVES. 


167 


level  ground.  If  the  grain  of  the  lumber  in  the  bottom-board 
runs  from  front  to  rear,  it  will  shed  water  more  readilj',,  and 
rot  less.  If  the  bottom  is  nailed  on  the  cross-blocks,  it  will 
not  be  in  danger  of  warping. 

Our  Swiss  friends  make  the  bottom-board  with  the  grain 
running  from  side  to  side.  They  say  that  in  this  way  they 
can  make  it  fit  exactly  in  the  lower  rabbet  of  the  hive, 
without  swellmg  or  shrinking.  They  also  make  the  apron, 
with  hinges  fastened  on  the  bottom-board,  and  in  snowy  or 
cold  weather,  they  raise  it  and  lean  it  against  the  hive,  to 
protect  the  entrance. 

344.  The  adjustable  bottom-hoard  is  convenient  in  many 
instances.     If  in  taking  the  bees   from  a  winter   repository, 


JkxTrl 


~1 


ti 


l"|G 


D  I 

Fig  75 


it  is  found  wet  and  inouldy,  you  can  at  once  exchange  it  for 
a  dry  one,  and  wipe  the  wet  board  at  leisure.  Or,  if  a 
comb  breaks  down  in  Summer,  by  weight  and  heat,  the  hive 
can  be  lifted  off  its  bottom,  and  placed  on  a  clean  stand,  so 
that  the  leaking  honey  and  broken  combs  can  be  instantly 
removed,  and  robbing  or  daubing  of  bees  avoided.  More- 
over, the  bottom-board  is  the  first  part  of  the  hive  to  decay, 
and  a  hive-body  and  cover  will  usually  outlast  two  bottom- 
boards.  As  many  bee-keepers  use  the  hive-bodies  of  small 
Langstroth  hives  in  two  or  more  stories,  they  do  not  cut  an 
entrance  in  the  front  board,  but  make  the  bottom-board  with 
slats  on  three  sides  so  as  to  leave  an  entrance  in  front,  fig.  84. 
Doctor  C.  C.  Miller  makes  his  bottom-boards  with  a  two- 
inch  space  under  the  frames. 


i(iS  TllK    IJEE-IUVES. 

345.  The  budy  of  (he  Jiivc  is  made  doable  on  the  back, 
which  should  always  be  the  North  side  of  the  hive.  (567.) 
This,  with  the  division-board  inside,  on  the  West,  shelters 
the    rolonv   more   ellieientiv    tiian    a   siniile   board   au'ainst    the 


MUUUUUUUULr 


Fig.    76. 

IMHTAL     KAr.RKTS    AXD    BOTTO>[    Cl-IDK     FOH    FRAMKS. 


Fig.  77. 

ONE  AND  A  HALF  STORY  TRI-STATE  LAN'GSTROTH  HIVE. 


,MOVABLE-FHAME   H1\ES. 


1(59 


cold  North- West  winds  of  Winter.  If  the  bees  are  to  be 
wintered  indoors,  the  double  back  may  be  dispensed  with.  A 
more  simple  form  of  body,  setting  flat  on  the  bottom,  as  in 
fio>.  74.  can  also  be  made. 


SHOWING    HOW   THE    SPACING   WIRE   IS    FIXED. 

Objections  are  raised  to  this  double  back,  by  Apiarists  who 
move  their  bees  often.  In  such  cases  the  hive  must  be  as 
light  as  possible.  But  we  aim  to  leave  our  hives  on  the  spot 
where  the  bees  are  located  and  weight  is  not  an  objection 
for  us. 


170 


I'liK  bee-hivp:s. 


346.  The  rabbet  iii  which  the  frames  hang  is  made  with  a 
sheet-iron  shoulder  (fig.  75),  supporting  the  frame.  This  can 
be  dispensed  with  altogether,  but  in  such  cases,  the  rabbet 
.should  be  only  deep  enough  for  the  frame  to  hang  as  repre- 
sented in  fig.  59.  The  plain  wooden  rabbet  is  objectionable, 
because  the  bees  glue  the  frame  shoulders  with  propolis. 


SHOWING     THK     TOOL     USED     TO     BEND    THE     WIRE     BRACES. 


A  hive  has  been  devised  by  E.  T.  Abbott  of  Missouri,  which 
has  a  nietal  rabbet  notched  for  the  frames  to  hang  at  proper 
distances,  fig.  76.  This  rabbet  which  we  now  use  in  some  of 
our  hives  is  made  by  us  quite  shallow,  so  the  frames  may  be 
slipped  along  Avith  but  little  difficulty  in  case  of  need.  A 
liangstroth  hive  made  with  these  improvements  as  also  with 


Fig.  80. 

SHOWING    HOAV    THE    WIRE    IS    REMOVED. 

a  bottom  guide  as  in  fig.  78,  is  now  sold  extensively  for  comb 
honey  production    (fig.  77). 

347.  The  Spacing-wire,  an  improvement  on  Quinby's  wire 
brace,  to  space  the  frames  at  the  bottom,  is  found  veiy  con- 
venient in  hives  as  deep  as  this.     It  is  also  useful  in  indicat- 


MOVABLE-FRAME   HIVES.  171 

ing  to  novices  the  imiiiber  of  frames  to  be  placed  in  the  hive. 
Even  a  practical  bee-keeper  will  sometimes  make  the  mis- 
take of  putting  eleven  or  thirteen  frames,  in  a  hive  that 
should  hold  twelve.  With  this  wire,  mistakes  are  impossible, 
as  they  will  at  once  be  detected.  Besides,  if  the  hive  has  to  be 
transported  some  distance,  it  keeps  the  frames  from  jarring. 
Its  cost  is  insignificant.  Some  Swiss  Apiarists  use  two  of 
these,  one  in  each  end. 

348.  The  entrance  should  not  be  less  than  five-sixteenths, 
or  more  than  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  depth,  in  order  to 
give  easy  passage  to  the  bees,  and  at  the  same  time,  keep 
out    mice.      Round    holes    are    objectionable.      Each    hive    is 


Fig.    81. 

DIVISION    BOARD. 

furnished  Avith  an  entrance-block,  somewhat  heavy,  and  cut 
as  in  fig.  73,  to  reduce,  or  close  the  entrance  according  to 
the  emergencies. 

349.  The  division  hoards  also  called  contractor  or  dummy, 
is  an  indispensable  feature  of  all  good  hives.  "With  its  help, 
the  hive  may  be  adjusted  to  the  size  of  the  weakest  swarm, 
and  in  Winter,  the  space  behind  it  can  be  filled  with  warm 
and  absorbing  material  (636).  The  constant  use  of  a  divi- 
sion board,  even  in  the  strongest  colonies,  renders  the  handling 
of  combs  much  easier.  All  Apiarists  know  that  the  first 
comb  is  the  hardest  to  remove.  By  removing  the  board  first, 
the  combs  are  at  once  free  and  can  be  easily  taken  out. 


172  TKE    BEE-UIVF.S. 

350.  This  board  is  made  of  the  same  depth  as  the  frames, 
witli  a  similar  top-bar.  Some  Apiarists  use  a  division-board 
the  full  depth  of  the  hive,  but  in  moving  it,  bees  are  crushed 
under  it,  and  if  any  bees  happen  to  be  on  the  outside  of  it, 
they  cannot  escape,  and  die  there.  On  the  other  hand,  this 
bee-passag-e  is  not  objectionable,  since  heat,  having  a  ten- 
dency to  rise,  does  not  escape  through  it.  The  board  is 
made  one-foui-th  inch  shorter  than  the  inside  of  the  hive, 
and  a  strip  of  oil-cloth  or  enamel-cloth,  one  and  a  half  inches 
wide,  is  tacked  on,  to  fill  the  spaces  at  each  end.  In  this 
way,  the  board  fits  well  against  the  ends,  and  is  never  glued 
so  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  remove.  A  small  half-round 
pine-strip,  laid  against  the  end  of  the  board,  while  tacking 
on  the  cloth,  and  pulled  out  aftenvards,  helps  to  tack  the 
cloth  properly.  To  prevent  the  bees  from  tearing  or  gnawing 
the  edge  of  the  cloth,  scmie  Apiarists  nail  a  small  strip  of 
tin  over  it. 

We  make  our  division  b(>ard  ~/^  of  an  inch  in  thickness 
and  put  it  in  the  place  of  a  frame.  This  gives  %  of  room 
behind  it,  which  allows  more  freedom  to  move  it. 

351.  In  the  diagram  (fig.  72)  the  reader  will  notice  the 
strip  H  used  to  widen  the  upper  surface  of  the  rabbeted 
end  of  the  hive.  This  wide  surface  is  veiy  convenient,  to 
make  the  cloth  and  straw-mat  fit  closely,  as  they  can  thus 
be  cut  a  little  longer. 

352.  The  oil-clolh  or  enamel-cloth,  first  applied  to  hive 
purposes  by  R.  Bickford,  is  used  over  the  brood-frames  in 
Spring.  It  fits  closely,  concentrates  the  heat,  and  can  be 
removed  without  jar  or  effort.  When  the  surplus  arrange- 
ment, or  upper  story,  is  jnit  on,  this  cloth  is  removed  and 
placed  at  the  top.  (759).  All  Apiarists,  or  nearly  all,  who 
have  tried  the  oil-cloth  and  honey-board  sinudtaneously,  have 
discarded  the  latter  forever,  except  in  some  cases  of  comb- 
honey  production,  when  a  perforated  zinc  (732)  honey -board 
is  used  between  the  stories.  The  oil-cloth  is  sometimes 
gnawed,  or  rather  pulled  to  jiieces  by  the  bees  in  a  few  years. 


MOVABLE-fKAME   HIVES. 


173 


but  its  cost  is  so  small,  and  its  use  so  great,  that  it  is  worth 
while  to  replace  it  as  often  as  necessary. 

353.  The  straiu-mat  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  neces- 
sary implements  of  the  bee-hive.  It  is  far  superior  to  the 
wooden-mat  described  by  one  or  two  writers.  It  is  flexible 
and  porous,  warm  in  Winter,  cool  in  Summer.  It  may  be 
made  of  lye  straw,  or  of  what  is  called  slough-grass,  a  tough 
and  coarse  grass  growing  in  marshy  places,  and  abounding  on 
the  bottoms  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  mat  shown  in 
fig.  73  is  only  about  one  inch  thick. 


Fig.  82. 

FRAME    TO    MAKE    STRAW   MATS. 

But  it  is  quite  sutticient.  We  are  sure  that  there  is  nothing 
that  will  equal  this  implement,  except  a  piece  of  heavy  felt 
of  proper  size. 

In  lig.  82  we  present  to  our  readers  an  engraving  of  a 
frame,  for  making  these  mats.  They  are  veiy  simple  in 
construction.  It  is  well,  in  making  them,  to  use  strong- 
twine,  soaked  in  linseed-oil;  for  the  moisture,  which  escapes 
from  the  bees  in  Winter,  would  soon  rot  the  string. 


174  THE    BEE-HIVES. 

The  enamel-cloth  is  removed  before  Winter  (635),  and 
the  mat  placed  immediately  over  the  frames.  A  good  mat 
will  last  as  long  as  the  hive. 

We  have  used  these  mats  for  forty  years  and  would  not 
think  of  getting  along  without  them. 

354.  The  upper  stoiy  or  cover  may  be  a  half-story  cap, 
in  one  piece  (fig.  72),  or  in  two  pieces  (fig.  74),  or,  if  only 
full  stories  are  used  for  surplus,  it  may  be  a  shallow  cover, 


Fig.  83. 

BOVKTAILED    OR   LOCK    CORNER   HIVE. 

which  will  fit  over  either  the  first  or  the  second  story.  We 
prefer  the  half-story  cap,  which  can  be  readily  filled  with 
absorbents  for  Winter,  and  is  adapted  to  any  style  of  supers.* 
355.  The  caps  must  fit  freely  so  as  to  be  easily  removed. 
They  may  be  made  of  lighter  lumber  than  the  body  of  the 
hive,  to  save  fatigue  to  the  Apiarist  in  handling  them.  The 
top  of  the  hive  must  be  water-tight.  Cracks,  knots  and 
seams   should   be   avoided,   or   should  be   thoroughly   painted 

*  This    term    is    used  by  Apiarists  to   designate   any  upper  box  placed 
over   the   main    lower   hive. 


i 


MOVABLE-FUAMK  HtVES.  175 

with  roof-cement  Before  putting  together  the  boards  which 
form  the  top  of  the  cap  of  our  hives,  we  make,  along  both 
sides  of  the  joints,  a  rounded  groove,  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  wide  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  deep,  in  which  the  rain- 
water runs,  instead  of  leaking  inside.  Mr.  McCord  of  Ox- 
ford, 0.,  made  the  covers  of  his  hives  water-tight,  by  cover- 
ing them  Avith  strong  muslin,  tacked  on  Avith  a  strip  nailed 


Fig.  84. 

TRI-STATE    HIVEj    WITH    FLAT    COVER    AND    TWO    SUPERS. 

to  the  edges  and  thoroughly  painted.  Mr.  G.  M.  Doolittle 
and  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  use  tin,  painted  white,  on  the  tops  of 
their  hives.  The  Swiss  and  French  bee-keepers  do  the  same. 
A  hive  is  made  by  some  manufacturers  which  contains  about 
as  much  brood-chamber  space  as  our  large  hive,  while  more 
cheaply  constructed.  This  is  called  the  Jumbo  hive  (fig.  85), 
and  is  made  with  lock  corners  similar  to  what  is  termed  the 


170 


Tllfc:    BKE-llIVES. 


"dovetailed  hive."     It   is  an   economical  hive,  but  we  prefer 
our  hive  with  telescope  cap  as  described. 

356.  The  hives  should  always  be  painted,  not  only  to 
make  them  last,  but  to  give  them  a  neat  appearance.  No 
dark  colors  should  be  used,  as  they  absorb  the  sun's  heat, 
nor  should  all  the  hives  be  of  the  same  tint  (503).  If  the 
joints  are  painted  when  they  are  put  together,  they  will  last 
much  longer.  Eveiy  old  Apiarist  well  knows  that  the  joints 
are  the  first  to  decay. 

357.  Each  hive,  in  an  apiary,  should  bear  a  number,  on 


Fig.  85. 
THE    JUMBO    HIVE. 

("Thp    A     B     C     of   Bee   Culture.") 


the  back  of  the  brood  apartment;  and  this  should  be  printed 
in  black  characters,  large  enough  to  be  seen  at  a  distance. 
In  small  apiaries  bee-keepers  use  a  slate,  on  each  hive;  but 
in  large  ones,  where  many  operations  are  performed,  it  is 
better  to  keep  a  record  of  the  condition  of  the  colonies, 
and  of  all  the  operations,  in  a  special  book. 

We  will  add,  that  a  hive  which  does  not  furnish  a  thorough 
control  over  every  comb  cannot  allow  of  the  manipulations 
which  the  bee-keeper's  necessities  demand.  Of  such  hives, 
the  best  are  those  which  best  unite  cheapness  and  simplicity, 
with  protection  in  Winter,  and  ready  access  to  the  spare 
honey-boxes,  or  supers. 


HOVABLE-FKAiFE   HIVES.  177 

358.  In  closing  this  chapter  on  hives,  we  cannot  refrain 
from  advising  the  beginners  in  bee-culture  to  be  very  cau- 
tious in  buying  patent  hives.  More  than  eight  hundred  pat- 
ents on  bee-hives  and  implements  have  been  issued  in  the 
United  States  from  1873  to  1890.  Not  ten  of  these  have 
proved  to  be  of  any  use  to  bee-keepers.  The  mention  of 
this  fact  will  suffice  to  show  the  small  value  of  these  790  pat- 
ents, and  the  loss  incurred  by  those  who  have  bought  tl>em, 
before  they  were  able  to  judge  of  their  merits. 

Materials  for  Bee-Hives. 

359.  The  variety  of  opinions  respecting  the  best  mate- 
rials for  hives,  has  been  almost  as  great  as  on  the  subject 
of  their  proper  size  and  shape.  Columella*  and  Virgil  rec- 
ommend the  hollowed  trunk  of  the  cork  tree,  than  which  no 
material  would  be  more  admirable  if  it  could  only  be  cheaply 
procured.  Straw  hives  have  been  used  for  ages,  and  are 
warm  in  Winter  and  cool  in  Summer.  The  difficulty  of 
making  them  take  and  retain  the  proper  shape  for  improved 
bee-keeping,  is  an  objection  to  their  use.  Hives  made  of 
wood  are,  at  the  present  time,  fast  superseding  all  others. 
The  lighter  and  more  spongy  the  wood,  the  poorer  will  be  its 
power  of  conducting  heat,  and  the  warmer  the  hive  in 
Winter  and  the  cooler  in  Summer.  Cedar^  poplar,  tulij>tree, 
and  especially  soft  pine,  afford  excellent  materials  for  bee- 
hives. The  Apiarist  must  be  governed,  in  his  choice  of  lum- 
ber, by  the  cheapness  with  which  any  suitable  kind  can  be 
obtained  in  his  own  immediate  vicinity,  and  by  its  lasting 
qualities. 

Scholz,  a  German  Apiarist,  recommends  hives  made  of 
adohe—in  which  frames  or  slats  may  be  used— as  cheaply 
constructed,  and  admirable  for  Summer  and  Winter.  Such 
structures,  however,   cannot   be   moved.      But   in   many   parts 


*  Columella,    about    the   middle   of  the   first   century  of   the   Christian 
Era,   wrote    twelve  books  on   husbandry — "De  re  rustica." 


178  THE   BEK-HIVES. 

(if  our  country,  where  both  lumber  and  saw-mills  are  scarce, 
and  where  people  are  accustomed  to  build  adobe  houses, 
they  might  prove  desirable.  The  material  is  plastic  clay, 
mixed  with  cut  straw,  waste  tow,  etc. 

360.  To  make  the  movable-frame  hives  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, the  lumber  should  be  cut  out  by  a  circular  saw, 
driven  by  steam,  water,  or  horse-power,  or  even  by  foot- 
l)ower.  In  buildings  where  such  saws  are  used,  the  frames 
may  be  made  from  the  small  pieces  of  lumber,  seldom  of  any 
use,  except  for  fuel,  and  may  be  packed  almost  solid  in  a  box, 
or  in  a  hive  which  will  afterwards  serve  for  a  pattern.  One 
frame  in  such  a  box,  properly  nailed  together,  will  serve  as 
a  guide  for  the  rest.  The  parts  of  the  hive  can  easily  and 
cheaply  be  made  by  any  one  who  can  handle  tools.  Much  has 
been  said  of  late,  concerning  the  great  cost  of  factorj^-made 
hives.  Lumber  is  constantly  growing  more  scarce  and  higher  in 
price,  and  the  only  way  to  have  cheap  hives  is  to  make  them  of 
lumber  selected  out  of  odds  and  ends  and  short  pieces.  The 
dovetailed  or  lock  comer  hive  (figs.  83,  85),  sold  by  most  deal- 
ers cannot  be  manufactured  in  a  small  shop  or  factory;  but  the 
lock  joints  are  not  indispensable.  When  the  lumber  is  halved 
at  the  joints  and  nailed  both  ways  the  corners  are  just  as  likely 
to  hold  and  will  rot  less. 

361.  Mr.  A.  I.  Root,  in  a  former  edition  of  the  A  B  C  of 
Bee-Culture  gave  veiy  good  instructions  about  hive  making  on 
a  small  scale.  We  here  cite,  with  illustrations,  his  explanation 
of  "why  boards  warp" : 

"Before  going  further,  you  are  to  sort  the  bcrds  so  as  to 
have  the  heart  side  of  the  lumber  come  on  the  outs'de  of  the 
hive.  If  you  look  at  the  end  of  each  board,  you  can  see  by 
the  circles  of  growth,  which  is  the  heart  side,  as  is  shown  in 
the  cuts.  At  B,  you  see  a  board  cut  off  just  at  one  side  of  ^^-^ 
heart  of  the  tree;  at  C,  near  the  bark;  at  A,  the  heart  is  in  th 
center  of  the  board.  You  all  know,  almost  without  being  to!'V 
that  boards  always  warp  like  C;  that  is,  the  heart  side  becomes 
convex.     The  reason  is  connected  with  the  shrinkage  of  boards 


Plate  15. 


A.  I.  ROOT  (Novice) 

Author  of  "T7ic  A  B  C  uf  Bee-Culture."' 
Formerly  editor  of  ^'Gleanings  in  Bee-Culture  ** 

This  writer   is  mentioned  pages   63,    64,   96,    97,   98,   99,    152,    153,    178, 
179,   295,    298,   325,   333,   334,   357,   383,   384,    385,   454,   519. 


vp:xtilatiux   of  the  bek-iiive. 


179 


in  seasoning.  When  a  log  lies  until  it  is  perfectly  seasoned,  it 
often  cheeks  as  in  fig.  2.  You  will  observe  that  the  wood 
shortens  in  the  direction  of  the  circles,  and  but  very  little,  if 
any,  along  the  lines  that  run  from  the  bark  to  the  center.  To 
allow  this  shrinkage  in  one  direction,  the  log  splits  or  checks 
in  the  direction  shown.  Now  to  go  back  to  our  boards,  you  will 
see  that  B  shrinks  more  than  A,  because  A  has  the  heart  of  the 
tree  in  its  center;  that  C  will  shrink,  in  seasoning,  much  more 
on  the  bark  side,  than  on  the  heart  side;  that  this  cannot  fail 
to  bring  the  board  out  of  a  level;  and  that  the  heart  side  will 
always  be  convex.  You  have  all  seen  bee-hives,  probably,  with 
the  corners  separated  and  gaping  open,  while  the  middle  of  the 
board  was  tight  up  in  place.     The  reason  was  that  the  mechanic 


f/gi 


SFfj 


Fig.   SO. 

had  put  the  boards  on,  wrong  side  out.  If  the  heart  side  had 
been  outward,  the  corners  of  the  hive  would  have  curled  in- 
wardly, and  if  the  middle  had  been  nailed  securely,  the  whole 
hive  would  have  been  likely  to  have  close,  tight  joints,  even  if 
exposed  to  the  sun,  wind,  and  rain." 

362.  Double-walled  hives,  eliatf  hives,  and  Winter  cov- 
ers, will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on  "Wintering"  (619). 
The  upper  stories,  half  stories,  wide  frames,  sections,  etc., 
for  comb,  or  extracted  honey,  will  be  discussed  in  the  chap- 
ter on  honey  producing'   (716). 


Yextilatiox  of  the  Bee-Hive. 

363.  If  a  populous  colony  is  examined  on  a  warm  day, 
a  number  of  bees  may  be  seen  standing  upon  the  alighting- 
board,  with  their  heads  turned  towards  the  entrance  of  the 
hive,   their    abdomens   slightly   elevated,   and    their   wings   in 


180  THE    BEE-HIVES. 

such  rapid  motion,  that  they  are  almost  as  indistinct  as  the 
spokes  of  a  wheel,  in  swift  rotation  on  its  axis.  A  brisk 
current  of  air  may  be  felt  proceeding  from  the  hive;  and  if 
a  small  piece  of  down  be  suspended  at  its  entrance,  by  a 
thread,  it  will  be  drawn  out  from  one  part,  and  drawn  in  at 
another.  Why  are  these  bees  so  deeply  absorbed  in  their 
fanning  occupation,  that  they  pay  no  attention  to  the  busy 
numbers  constantly  crowding  in  and  out  of  the  hive  I  and 
what  is  the  meaning  of  this  double  current  of  air?  To  Huber, 
we  owe  the  satisfactory  explanation  of  these  curious  phe- 
nomena. The  bees,  thus  singularly  plying  their  rapid  wings, 
are  ventilating  the  hive;  and  this  double  current  is  caused  by 
pure  air  rushing  m,  to  supply  the  place  of  the  foul  air  which 
is  forced  out.  By  a  series  of  beautiful  experiments,  Iluber 
ascertained  that  the  air  of  a  crowded  hive  is  almost  as  pure 
as  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  Now,  as  the  entrance  to 
such  a  hive  is  often  very  small,  the  air  within  cannot  be 
renewed,  without  resort  to  artificial  means.  If  a  lamp  is 
put  into  a  close  vessel,  with  only  one  small  orifice,  it  will 
soon  exhaust  the  oxygen,  and  cease  to  burn.  If  another 
small  orifice  is  made,  the  same  result  will  follow;  but  if  a 
current  of  air  is  by  some  device  drawn  out  from  one  open- 
ing, an  equal  current  will  force  its  way  into  the  other,  and 
the  lamp  will  burn  until  the  oil  is  exhausted. 

*^64.  It  is  on  this  principle  of  maintaming  a  double  cur- 
rent by  artificial  means,  that  bees  ventilate  their  crowded 
habitations.  A  file  of  ventilating  bees  stands  inside  and 
outside  of  the  hive,  each  with  head  turned  to  its  entrance, 
and  while,  by  the  rapid  fanning  of  their  "many  twinkling^' 
wings,  a  brisk  current  of  air  is  blown  out  of  the  hive,  an 
equal  current  is  drawn  in.  As  this  important  office  demands 
unusual  physical  exertion,  the  exhausted  laborers"  are,  from 
time  to  time,  relieved  by  fresh  detachments.  If  the  interior 
of  the  hive  permits  inspection,  many  ventilators  will  be 
found  scattered  through  it,  in  veiy  hot  weather,  all  busily 
engaged   in   their   laborious   employment.      If   its   entrance   is 


i 


VEX^ILATION     OF    THE    13EE-HiVE.  I8l 

contracted,  speedy  accessions  will  be  made  to  their  ii um- 
bers, both  inside  and  outside  of  the  hive;  and  if  it  is  closed 
entirely,  the  heat  and  impurity  quickly  increasing,  the 
whole  colony  will  attempt  to  renew  the  air  by  rapidly  vi- 
brating their  wings,  and  in  a  short  time,  if  unrelieved,  will 
die  of  suffocation. 

365.  Careful  experiments  show  that  pure  air  is  neces- 
sary not  only  for  the  respiration  of  the  mature  bees,  but  for 
hatching  the  eggs,  and  developing  the  larvae;  a  fine  netting 
of  air-vessels  enveloping  the  eggs,  and  the  cells  of  the  larvae 
being  closed  with  a  covering  filled  with  air-holes   (168). 

366.  Ventilation  is  also  necessary  to  ripen  the  nectar 
harvested  in  the  fields  and  evaporate  the  water  that  it  con- 
tains. 

In  Winter,  if  bees  are  kept  in  a  dark  place,  which  is 
neither  too  warm  nor  too  cold,  they  are  almost  dormant,  and 
require  very  little  air;  but  even  under  such  circumstances, 
they  cannot  live  entirely  without  it ;  and  if  they  are  excited 
by  atmospheric  changes,  or  in  any  w^ay  disturbed,  a  loud 
hummmg  may  be  heard  in  the  interior  of  their  hives,  and 
they  need  almost  as  much  air  as  in  warm  weather.      (621). 

367."  If  bees  are  greatly  disturbed,  it  will  be  unsafe,  es- 
pecially in  warm  weather,  to  confine  them,  unless  they  have 
a  very  free  admission  of  air;  and  even  then,  unless  it  is  ad- 
mitted above,  as  w^ell  as  below^  the  mass  of  bees,  the  venti- 
lators may  become  clogged  Avith  dead  bees,  and  the  colony 
perish.  Bees  under  close  •  confinement  become  excessively 
heated,  and  their  combs  are  often  melted;  if  dampness  is 
added  to  the  injurious  influence  of  bad  air,  they  become 
diseased;  and  large  numbers,  if  not  the  whole  colony,  may 
perish  from  diarrhoea.  Is  it  not  under  precisely  such  cir- 
cumstances that  cholera  and  dysentery  prove  most  fatal  to 
human  beings'?  the  filthy,  damp,  and  un ventilated  abodes 
of  the  abject  poor,  becoming  perfect  lazar-houses  to  their 
wretched  inmates. 

368.     We  have  several  times  examined   the  bees  of  new 


i8"J  TilK   BEE-HIVKS. 

swarms  whicli  were  bi\»iiyhl  to  our  apiary,  so  closely  con- 
fined, that  they  had  died  of  suffocation.  In  each  instance, 
their  bodies  were  distended  with  a  yellow  and  noisome  sub- 
stance, as  though  they  had  perished  from  diarrhoea.  A  few 
were  still  alive,  and  although  the  colony  had  been  shut  up 
only  a  few  hours,  the  bodies  of  both  the  living  and  the  dead 
wei-e  filled  with  this  same  disgusting  fluid,  instead  of  the 
honey  they  had  when  they  swarmed. 

In  a  medical  point  of  view,  these  facts  are  highly  inter- 
esting; showing  as  they  do,  under  what  circumstances,  and 
how  speedily,  diseases  may  be  produced  resembling  dj'sen- 
teiy  or  cholera. 

i{(>9.  In  very  hot  weather,  if  thin  hives  are  exposed  to 
the  sun's  direct  rays,  the  bees  are  excessively  annoyed  by 
the  intense  heat,  and  have  recourse  to  the  most  powerful 
ventilation,  not  merely  to  keep  the  air  of  the  hive  pure,  but 
to  lower  its  temperature. 

Bees,  in  such  weather,  often  leave,  almost  in  a  body,  the 
interior  of  the  hive,  and  cluster  on  the  outside,  not  merely 
to  escape  the  close  heat  within,  but  to  guard  their  combs 
against  the  danger  of  being  melted. 

370.  Few  novices  have  an  adequate  idea  of  the  danger 
to  heavily  laden  coml)s  from  heat,  especially  if  the  cluster 
of  bees,  outside,  happens  to  obstruct  the  entrance,  by  hang- 
ing in  front  of  it.  In  the  Summer  of  1877,  we  have  seen 
whole  rows  of  hives,  which  were  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays, 
in  a  large  apiary,  ''melt  down"  almost  simultaneously,— 
causing  a  loss  of  hundreds  of  dollars, — for  lack  of  sufficient 
ventilation,  owing  to  the  cluatering  of  the  bees  in  front  of 
the  entrance. 

3*71.  After  one  comb  breaks  down,  the  leaking  honey 
spreads  over  the  bottom-board,  runs  out  of  the  entrance, 
daubs  the  bees,  and  prevents  further  ventilation;  then  the 
rest  of  the  combs  fall  pell-mell  on  one  another,  crushing  the 
brood,  the  queen,  and  the  remaining  bees.  It  is  utter  de- 
struction. 


\E.\TILAT1()X     OF    THE     IIEE-IIIVE.  ISIJ 

372.  In  very  hut  weather,  the  bees  are  specially  careful 
not  to  cluster  on  new  combs  contammg  sealed  honey,  which, 
from  not  being  lined  Avitli  cocoons,  and  from  the  extra 
amount  of  wax  used  for  their  covers,  melt  more  readily  than 
the  breedmg'-cells. 

373.  Apiarists  have  noticed  that  bees  often  leave  their 
honey-cells  almost  bare,  as  soon  as  they  are  sealed;  but  it 
seems  to  have  escaped  their  observation,  that  this  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  veiy  hot  weather.  In  cool  weather,  they 
may  frequently  be  found  clustered  among  the  sealed  honey- 
combs, because  there  is  then  no  danger  of  their  melting. 

Few  things  are  so  well  fitted  to  impress  the  mind  with  their 
admirable  sagacity,  as  the  truly  scientific  device  by  which 
they  ventilate  their  dwellings.  In  this  important  matter, 
the  bee  is  immensely  in  advance  of  the  great  mass  of  those 
who  are  called  rational  beings.  It  has,  to  be  sure,  no  ability 
to  decide,  from  an  elaborate  analysis  of  the  chemical  con- 
stituents of  the  atmosphere,  how  large  a  proportion  of  oxy- 
gen is  essential  to  the  support  of  life,  and  hoAv  rapidlj^  the 
process  of  breathing  converts  it  into  a  deadly  poison.  It 
cannot,  like  Liebig,  demonstrate  that  God,  by  setting  the 
animal  and  the  vegetable  world,  the  one  over  against  the 
other,  has  provided  that  the  atmosphere  shall,  through  all 
ages,  be  as  pure  as  when  it  first  came  from  His  creating 
hand.  But  shame  upon  us  I  that  with  all  our  boasted  intel- 
ligence, most  of  us  live  as  though  pure  air  was  of  little  or 
no  importance;  w^hile  the  bee  ventilates  wath  a  philosophical 
precision  that  should  put  to  the  blush  our  criminal  neglect. 

It  is  said  that  ventilation  cannot,  in  our  case,  be  had 
without  cost.  Can  it  then  be  had  for  nothing,  by  the  indus- 
trious bees?  Those  ranks  of  bees,  so  indefatigably  plying 
their  busy  wings,  are  not  engaged  in  idle  amusement;  nor 
might  they,  as  some  shallow^  utilitarian  may  imagine,  be 
better  employed  in  gathering  honey,  or  superintending  some 
other  department  in  the  economy  of  the  hive.  At  great  ex- 
pense of  time  and  labor,  they  are  supplying  the  rest  of  the 


184  THE    DEE-HIVES. 

colony  with  the  pure  air  so  conducive  to  their  health  and 
prosperity.,  What  a  difference  between  them  and  some 
human  beings,  who,  "if  they  lived  in  a  glass  bottle,  would 
insist  on  keeping  the  cork  in!" 

Impure  air,  one  would  think,  is  bad  enough;  but  all  its 
inherent  vileness  is  stimulated  to  still  greater  activity  by  air- 
tight, or  rather  lung-tight  stoves,  which  can  economize  fuel 
only  by  squandering  health  and  endangering  life.  Not  only 
our  private  houses,  but  our  places  of  public  assemblage  are 
often  either  unimproved  with  any  means  of  ventilation,  or  to 
a  great  extent,  supplied  ^vith  those  so  deficient,  that  they 
only 

"Keep   the   word    of   promise   to   our   ear. 
To  break  it  to  our  hope." 

Men  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  resist  the  injurious  influences 
of  foul  air;  as  their  employments  usually  compel  them  to  live 
more  out  of  doors:  but  alas,  alas!  for  the  poor  women!  In 
the  very  land  where  they  are  treated  with  such  merited  def- 
erence and  respect,  often  no  provision  is  made  to  furnish 
them  with  that  first  element  of  health,  cheerfulness,  and 
beauty,  heaven's  pure,  fresh  air. 

Observixg  Hives. 

374.  For  nearly  a  century,  hives  have  been  in  use  con- 
taining only  one  comb,  inclosed  on  both  sides  by  glass. 
These  hives  are  darkened  by  shutters,  and,  when  opened,  the 
queen  is  as  much  exposed  to  observation  as  the  other  bees. 
Mr.  Langstroth  discovered  that,  with  proper  precautions, 
colonies  can  be  made  to  work  in  observing-hives,  even  when 
exposed  continually  to  the  full  light  of  day;  so  that  observa- 
tions may  be  made  at  all  times,  without  interrupting  by  any 
sudden  admission  of  light,  the  ordinaiy  operations  of  the 
bees.  In  such  hives,  many  intelligent  persons  from  various 
States  in  the  Union  have  seen  the  queen-bee  depositing  her 
eggs  in  the  cells,  while  surrounded  bv  an  affectionate  circle 


OBSERVING    HIVES.  185 

of  her  devoted  children.  They  have  also  witnessed,  with  as- 
tonishment and  delight,  all  the  mysterious  steps  in  the  proc- 
ess of  raising  queens  from  eggs,  which  with  the  ordinary  de- 
velopment would  have  produced  only  the  common  bees.  Often 
for  more  than  three  months,  there  has  not  been  a  day  in 
our  apiary,  in  which  some  colonies  were  not  engaged  in 
rearing  new  queens  to  supply  the  place  of  those  taken  from 
them;  and  we  have  had  the  pleasure  of  exhibiting  these  facts 
to  bee-keepers,  who  never  before  felt  willing  to  credit  them. 
375.  An  Apiarist  may  use  the  box  hives  a  whole  life- 
time, and,  unless  he  gains  his  information  from  other  sources, 
may  yet  remam  ignorant  of  some  of  the  most  important 
principles  m  the  physiology  of  the  honey-bee;  while  any 
intelligent  cultivator  may,  with  an  observing-hive  and  the 
use  of  movable-frames,  in  a  single  season,  verify  for  him- 
self the  discoveries  which  have  been  made  only  by  the 
accumulated  toil  of  many  observers,  for  more  than  two  thou- 
sand years. 

"An  opportunity  of  beholding  the  proceedings  of  the  queen, 
in  hives  of  the  old  form,  is  so  very  rarely  afforded,  that  many 
Apiarists  have  passed  their  lives  without  enjoying  it;  and 
Reaumur  himself,  even  with  the  assistance  of  a  glass-hive,  ac- 
knowledges that  it  was  many  years  before  he  had  that  pleas- 
ure." — (Bevan.) 

Swammerdam,  who  wrote  his  wonderful  treatise  on  bees, 
before  the  invention  of  observing-hives,  was  obliged  to  tear 
hives  to  pieces  m  makmg  his  investigations!  When  we  see 
what  important  results  these  great  geniuses  obtained,  with 
means  so  imperfect,  if  compared  with  the  facilities  which 
the  veriest  tyro  now  possesses,  it  ought  to  teach  us  a  be- 
coming lesson  of  humility. 

The  sentiments  of  the  following  extract  from  Swammer- 
dam, ought  to  be  engraven  upon  the  hearts  of  all  engaged 
in  investigating  the  works  of  God: 

*'I  would  not  have  any  one  think  that  I  say  this  from  a  love 
of  fault-fincHnof." — h<»  >»qfT  booj^  criticising  some  incorrect  draW' 


186 


THE    BEE-niVES. 


ings  and  descriptions — "my  sole  design  is  to  have  the  true 
face  and  disposition  of  Nature  exposed  to  sight.  I  wish  that 
others  may  pass  the  like  censure,  when  due,  on  my  works;  for 
I  doubt  not  that  I  have  made  many  mistakes,  although  I  can, 
from  the  heart,  say.  that  I  have  not,  in  this  treatise  designed 
to  mislead. ' ' 

376.  This  hive  is  a  simplified  form,  but  Mr.  1).  F.  Sav- 
age  suggested  a  still  more  simple  one,  by  making  the  top  so 
narrow  as  not   to  conceal  any  of  the  bees,  and  leaving-  off 


Fig.  87. 

OBSERVING    HIVE. 

(From   Alley's    "Handy-Book.") 
a,  stand  ;  B,  CC ,  movable  glass  frame  ;   E,  moulding  under  whicb   the 
top  of  the   shutter  H  slips,   to   darken   the  hive,   if  needed ;   F,  movable 
top,   held    in   place   by   hooks.      The   comb   of  brood   and   bees   is   put   in, 
by  removing  the  top   and   one  side. 

the  shutters  entirely,  to  replace  them  with  a  dark  cloth 
thrown  over  the  hive.  But  this  cloth  can  be  used  only  when 
the  hive  is  established  inside  the  house.  Its  main  advan- 
tages are  to  do  away  with  the  noise  and  jar  of  opening 
the  shutters. 

377.     A  parlor  observing-hive  of  this  form  may  be  con- 
veniently   placed    in    any   room   in   the  house;    the   alighting- 


OUSERVIXG    HIVES. 


is: 


board  being  outside,  and  the  whole  arrangement  such  that 
the  bees  may  be  inspected  at  all  hours,  day,  or  night,  Avith- 
out  the  slightest  risk  of  their  stmging.  Two  such  hives 
may  be  placed  before  one  window,  and  put  up  or  taken 
down  in  a  few  minutes,  without  cutting  or  defacing  the  wood- 
wcrk  of  the  house. 


Fig.   88. 
OBSERVING    HIVE    IN     A    WINDOW. 

("American  Bee  Journal.") 

An  observing-hive  will  prove  an  unfailing  source  of  pleas- 
ure and  instruction ;  and  those  who  live  in  crowded  cities, 
may  enjoy  it  to  the  full,  even  if  condemned  to  the  penance 
of  what  the  poet  has  so  feelingly  described  as  an  "endless 
meal  of  brick."  The  nimble  wings  of  the  agile  gatherers 
will  quickly  waft  them  above  and  beyond  "the  smoky 
chinuiey-iiots" ;   and  they  will  bear  back  to  their  citj?   homes 


188  THE   BEE-HIVES. 

the  balmy  spoils  of  many  a  rustic  Hower,  "blushing  uuseeu," 
ill  simple  loveliness.  Might  not  their  pleasant  murmurmgs 
awaken  in  some  the  memoiy  of  long-forgotten  joys,  when 
the  happy  country  child  listened  to  their  soothing  music, 
while  intently  watching  them  in  the  old  homestead-garden, 
t:r  roved  with  them  amid  pastures  and  hill-sides,  to  gather 
the  flowers  still  rejoicing  in  their  "meadow-sweet  breath," 
or  whispermg  of  the  precious  perfumes  of  their  forest  home? 

"To  me  more  dear,  congenial  to  my  heart, 
One  native  charm  than  all  the  gloss  of  art; 
Spontaneous  joys,  where  nature  has  its  play, 
The  soul  adopts  and  owns  their  first -torn  sway; 
Lightly  they  frolic  o'er  the  vacant  mind, 
Unenvied,  unmolested,  unconfined, 
But  the  long  pomp,  the  midnight  masquerade, 
With  all  the  freaks  of  wanton  wealth  array 'd. 
In  these,  ere  triflers  half  their  wish  obtain. 
The   toilsome   pleasure   sickens   into   pain; 
And  e'en  while  fashion's  brightest  arts  decoy, 
The  heart  distrusting  asks,  if  this  be  joy." 

Goldsmith 


CHAPTER  V. 

handling  bees. 

The  Honey-Bee  Capable  of  Being  Tamed. 

SYS.  If  the  bee  bad  not  such  a  formidable  weapon  (78) 
both  of  offense  and  defense,  many  who  now  fear  it  might 
easily  be  induced  to  enter  upon  its  cultivation.  As  the 
present  system  of  management  takes  the  greatest  possible 
liberties  with  this  insect,  it  is  important  to  show  how  all 
necessary  operations  may  be  performed  without  serious  risk 
of  exciting  its  anger. 

Many  persons  are  unable  to  suppress  their  astonishment, 
when  they  see  an  Apiarist,  with  the  help  of  a  little  smoke, 
opening  hive  after  hive,  removing  the  combs  covered  with 
bees,  and  shaking  them  off  in  front  of  the  hives;  forming 
new  swarms,  exhibiting  the  queen,  transferring  the  bees 
with  all  their  stores  ii.  another  hive;  and  in  short,  dealing 
with  them  as  if  they  were  as  harmless  as  flies.  We  have 
sometimes  been  asked,  whethei'  the  hives  we  were  opening 
had  not  been  subjected  to  a  long  -"ourse  of  training;  when 
they  contained  swarms  which  had  been  ^vought  only  the  day 
before  to  our  apiary. 

We  shall,  in  this  chapter,  show  that  any  ^ne  favorably 
situated  may  enjoy  the  pleasure  and  profit  o±  a  pursuit 
which  has  been  appropriately  styled,  "the  poetry  of  rural 
economy,"  without  being  made  too  familiar  with  a  sk'^rp 
little  Aveapon,  which  speedily  converts  all  the  poetry  in*. 
sorry  prose. 

It  must  be  manifest  to  every  reflecting  mind,  that  the 
Creator  intended  the  bee,  as  truly  as  the  horse  or  the  cow, 
for  the  comfort  of  man.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  world, 
and  indeed  until  quite  modern  times,  honey  was  almost  the 

180 


190 


JlAXI)LlX(i     r.KKS. 


only  natural  sweet;  and  the  promise  of  "a  laud  flowing 
with  milk  and  honej'"  had  once  a  significance  which  it  is 
diflficult  for  us  fully  to  realize.  The  honey-bee,  therefore,  was 
created  not  merely  to  store  up  its  delicious  nectar  for  its  own 
use.  but   with   certain   propensities,   without    which   man   could 


Fig.  89. 

OPEXIXG    THE    HIVE    AND    EXAMINING    THE    COMBS. 

Apiary   of  Mr.    Mont-.Jovet,   Albertville,   Savoie. 


no  more  subject  it  to  his  control,  than  he  could  make  a  useful 
beast  of  burden  of  a  lion  or  a  tiger. 

379.  One  of  the  peculiarities  which  constitutes  the  foun- 
dation of  the  present  system  of  management,  and  indeed  of 
the  possibility  of  domesticating  at  all  so  irascible  an  insect, 
lias  never  to  our  knowledge  been  clearly  stated  as  a  great  and 
controlling  principle  by  any  one  before  Mr,  La^gstroth.  It 
may  be  thus  expressed : 


I 


'rilK   IIU^•EV-I5EE    CAl'ABLK   OF   KElXC   TAMED. 


101 


A  ho)iey-bt'c  when  heavily  laden  with  honey  never  volunteers 
an  attack,  hut  acts  solely  on  the  defensive. 

This  law  of  the  honeyed  tribe  is  so  universal,  that  a  stone 
might  as  soon  be  expected  to  rise  into  the  air,  without  any 
propelling  power,  as  a  bee  well  filled  with  honey  to  offer  to 
sting,  unless  crushed  or  injured  by  some  direct  assault.  The 
man  who  first  attempted  to  hive  a  swarm  (428)  of  bees, 
must  have  been  agreeably  surprised  at  the  ease  with  which  he 
was  able  to  accomplish  the  feat;  for  it  is  wisely  ordered  that 
bees,  when  intending  to  swarm,  should  fill  their  honey-bags  to 
their  utmost  capacity.     They  are  thus  so  peaceful  that  they 


i 

in 

k\ 

■mmmt^mr- 

Fig.  90. 
BINGHAM     SMOKER. 


can  easily  be  secured  by  man,  besides  having  materials  for 
commencing  operations  immediately  in  their  new  habitation, 
and  being  in  no  danger  of  starving,  if  several  stormy  days 
should  follow  their  emigration. 

380.  While  swarming,  bees  issue  from  their  hives  in  the 
most  peaceful  mood  imaginable ;  and  unless  abused  allow  them- 
selves to  be  treated  with  the  greatest  familiarity.  The  hiving 
of  them  might  always  be  conducted  without  risk,  if  there  were 
not,  occasionally,  some  improvident  or  unfortunate  ones,  who, 
coming  forth  without  a  sufficient  amount  of  the  soothing  sup- 
ply, are  filled  instead  with  the  bitterest  hate  against  any  one 


192 


HANDLING    BEES. 


daring  to  meddle  with  them.  Such  thriftless  radicals  are 
always  to  be  dreaded,  for  they  must  vent  their  spleen  on  some- 
thing, even  though  they  perish  in  the  act.     (84.) 

If  a  whole  colony,  on  sallying  forth,  possessed  such  a 
ferocious  spirit,  no  one  could  hive  them  unless  clad  in  a  coat 
of  mail,  bee-proof;  and  not  even  then,  until  all  the  windows 
of  his  house  were  closed,  his  domestic  animals  bestowed  in 
vome  place  of  safety,  and  sentinels  posted  at  suitable  stations, 


Fig.  91. 

CHAMPION    SMOKER. 


to  warn  all  comers  to  keep  at  a  safe  distance.  In  short,  if 
the  propensity  to  be  exceedingly  good-natured  after  a  hearty 
meal,  had  not  been  given  to  the  bee,  it  could  never  have  been 
domesticated,  and  our  honey  would  still  be  procured  from  the 
clefts  of  rocks  or  the  hollows  of  trees.  Probably  the  good 
nature  resulting  from  a  hearty  meal  is  not  the  only  cause  of 
the  above  fact.  There  is  another  physiological  fact  connected 
with  it   (85).     When  her  stomacli  ic  ^mpty,  a  bee  can  curve 


THE    HONEY-BEE    CAPABLE    OF    BEING    TAMED.  193 

her  abdomen  easily  to  sting.  If  lier  honey-sack  is  full,  the 
rings  of  the  abdomen  are  distended,  and  she  finds  more  diffi- 
culty in  taking  the  proper  position  for  stmging, 

381.  A  second  peculiarity,  in  the  nature  of  bees,  gives 
an  almost  unlimited  control  over  them,  and  may  be  expressed 
as  follows: 

BeeSy  ichen  frightened,  usually  begin  to  pll  themselves  with 
honey  from  their  combs. 

If  the  Apiarist  only  succeeds  in  frightening  his  little  sub- 
jects, he  can  make  them  as  peaceable  as  though  they  were 
incapable  of  stinging.  By  the  use  of  a  little  smoke,  the  largest 
and  most  fieiy  colony  may  be  brought  into  complete  subjection. 
As  soon  as  the  smoke  is  blown  among  them,  they  retreat  before 
it,  raismg  a  subdued  or  terrified  note;  and,  seeming  to  imagine 
that  their  honey  is  to  be  taken  from  them,  they  cram  their 
honey-bags  to  their  utmost  capacity.  They  act  either  as  if 
aware  that  only  what  they  can  lodge  in  this  inside  pocket  is 
safe,  or,  as  if  expecting  to  be  driven  away  from  tlieir  stores, 
they  are  determined  to  start  with  a  full  supply  of  provisions 
for  the  way.  The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  shutting 
them  up  in  their  hive  and  drumunng  upon  it  for  a  short  time, 
but  this  latter  process  is  only  successful  with  some  races  of 
bees  easily  frightened,  like  the  black  bees  (549). 

382.  The  bellows-smokers,  in  present  use,  for  smoking 
bees  and  controlling  them,  are  as  far  superior  to  the  old 
method  of  blowing  smoke  on  them  with  the  mouth  from  a 
piece  of  punk  or  rotton  wood,  or  a  bunch  of  rags,  as  the 
movable-frame  hive  is  superior  to  the  box  hive  of  old.  The 
writer  of  this,  who  kept  bees  in  large  numbers  in  several 
apiaries  before  the  introduction  of  the  practical  bellows- 
smoker,  has  many  a  time  felt  dizzy  from  the  fatigue  of  blow- 
mg  smcke  on  the  bees. 

Bellows-smokers  were  used  m  Europe  long  ago,  but  they 
were  not  j^ractical,  as  they  could  not  be  used  with  one  hand. 

Quinby,  one  of  the  veterans  of  progTessive  Apiculture,  in- 
vented the  first  bellows-smoker  that  had  the  bellows  on  the 


194 


HANDLING     BEES. 


side  of  the  fire-box,  tiiat  could  stand  up  and  draw  like  a 
chimney,  and  that  could  practically  be  held  with  one  hand. 
Bingham  afterwards  greatly  improved  on  this  smoker.  Since 
then,  others  have  made  different  styles,  all  based  on  Quinby's 
or  on  Bingham's  ideas. 

The  Improved  Quinby-Bingham  smokers  have  been  imitated 
all  over  the  world,  especially  in  England  and  France,  and  we 
are  soriy  to  say,  some  of  these  imitations  have  been  sold  as 
})ersonal  inventions,  without  any  credit  being  given  to  the 
real  inventors. 

A  bee-smoker  is  indispensable  to  an}-  Apiarist,  and  should 


Fig.   92. 

CORXEIL     SMOKER. 


be  properly  filled,  when  used,  with  dry  wood,  lighted  at  the 
bottom  by  a  few  hot  coals.  With  a  good  smoker  any  kind  of 
wood  may  be  used.  When  the  bees  are  located  in  an  orchard, 
dead  limbs  of  apple-trees  are  handiest  and  will  make  good 
smoke.  Shavings,  leaves,  rags,  can  also  be  used,  if  no  Avood 
is  at  hand.  By  setting  the  smoker  upright,  when  not  held  in 
the  hand,  so  as  to  create  a  good  draft,  and  refilling  it  from 
time  to  time,  a  good  smoke  can  be  kept  up  from  morning  till 
night,  if  necessaiy. 

In  his  book,  "Forty  Years  Among  the  Bees,"  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller 
advises  the  use  of  what  he  calls  '^saltpeter-rags"  for  lighting 
the  smoker.     "We  nuote  wliat  ho  savs : 


THE   liUXKV-DEt:   CAPABLE   OF   BEING   TAMED.  105 

"Nothing  has  given  me  quite  so  much  satisfaction  as  salt- 
peter-rags. Like  the  right  kind  of  rotten  wood,  the  least 
spark  will  light  a  saltpeter-rag  so  that  it  will  be  sure  to  go, 
but  it  is  not  so  slow  in  its  action  as  the  rotten  wood  and  makes 
a  much  greater  heat,  so  that  chips  of  sound,  hard  wood  will 
at  once  be  started  into  a  secure  fire.  To  prepare  the  salt- 
peter-rags a  crock  is  kept  constantly  standing  containing  a  solu- 
tion of  saltpeter.  The  strength  of  the  solution  is  not  a  matter 
of  great  nicety.  A  quarter  or  a  half  pound  of  saltpeter  may 
be  used  to  a  gallon  of  water,  and  if  it  evaporates  so  that  the 
solution  becomes  stronger,  water  may  be  added.  A  cotton  rag 
dipped  in  this  solution  will  be  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  dried. 
As  a  matter  of  convenience,  quite  a  lot  of  rags  are  prepared 
at  a  time.  They  are  wrung  out  of  the  solution  and  spread  out 
to  dry  in  the  sun," 

383.  Some  Apiarists  of  England  have  tried  several  liquids, 
for  rubbing-  on  the  hands,  to  pacify  the  bees.  Most  of  these 
liquids  are  hydro-carbonous  fluids,  or  volatile  oils  of  plants, 
such  as  wintergreen,  turpentine,  berganiot,  cloves,  thyme,  etc. 
Mr.  Grimshaw,  after  divers  trials,  invented  a  compound  of 
several  of  these  oils,  to  which  he  seems  to  have  added  ether 
and  chloroform,  if  our  sense  of  smell  does  not  mislead  us. 
He  calls  it  Apifuge. 

Several  apiarists  praise  this  drug,  while  others  say  that 
their  bees  did  not  mind  it,  and  sting  them  as  usual;  and  some 
complain  of  blisters  on  their  hands  after  its  use.  {British 
Bee-Journal.) 

Mr.  Cowan  presented  us  with  a  vial  of  Apifuge,  but,  after 
trying,  we  cannot  see  much  advantage  to  be  derived  from  its 
use. 

384.  Mr.  Raynor  advises  the  use  of  a  carbolized  sheet,  to 
frighten  bees : 

' '  Make  a  solution  of  3  oz.  carbolic  acid  in  a  quart  of  water^ 
and  preserve  for  use.  Mix  lYj  oz.  of  this  solution  with  l^A  oz. 
of  glycerine;  put  the  mixture  in  a  quart  of  water,  shake  well 
before  using;  steep  in  the  mixture  a  piece  of  calico,  or  cheese 


196 


HANDLING    BEES. 


cloth,  sufficiently  large  to  cover  the  top  of  the  hive,  wring  out 
dry  and  spread  over  the  hive  as  soon  as  the  quilt  is  removed. 
*'You  may  use  the  same  to  drive  the  bees  out  of  the  sec- 
tions. Keep  the  bottles  well  corked  for  future  use." — (Rev. 
G.  Raynor,  in  the  British  Bee-Journal.) 

The  same  liquid  may  be  forced  among  the  bees  through  an 
atomizer.     x\.s  it  evaporates  it  leaves  no  bad  smell  Ijehind. 
385.     A  neighbor  of  ours,  who   is  a  mag-netist,  told  our 


i 
pi 

Wr^' 

U 

S 

Fig.  93. 

VEIL    SEWED    ON    THE    HAT. 

fo reman- Ai3iarist  that  bees  could  be  pacified  by  simply  laying 
one's  hands  above  the  combs  while  the  cloth  is  carefully  re- 
moved. We  have  seen  bees  withdraw  from  the  frames  inside 
the  hive,  under  this  laying  on  of  hands;  but  w^e  are  not  sure 
that  such  magnetism,  if  there  be  magnetism  in  it,  is  sufficient 
to  prevent  the  bees  from  stinging. 


( 


^HE   PIOXEY-BEE    CAPABLE   OF   BEIXG   TA3IED.  197 

386.  A  bee-veil,  although  objectionable  to  some  bee- 
keepers, who  prefer  to  handle  their  bees  barefaced,  is  really 
a  necessity  in  a  large  apiaiy.  Timid  persons  feel  safer  in 
using  it,  and  even  the  boldest  bee-keepers  recognize  the  neces- 
sity of  wearing  one,  when  colonies  become  aroused  by  accident. 
The  best  veils  are  sewed  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  rim  of  a 
straw-hat;  with  a  rubber  at  their  lower  extremity,  to  fasten 
around  the  neck.  The  veil  can  be  slipped  on  and  off  in  a 
twinkling,  if  necessity  requires;  when  not  in  use,  it  is  simply 
folded  into  the  crown  of  the  hat,  where  it  is  always  at  hand. 

We  keep  a  number  of  these  veil  hats  in  our  bee-house,  for 
the  accommodation  of  visitors,  who  wish  to  look  through  the 
wonders  of  the  bee-hive,  without  fear  of  stings. 

Most  veils  are  made  removable,  with  a  rubber  at  each  end; 
the  upper  one  being  slipjDed  over  the  crown  of  the  hat.  This 
veil  can  be  taken  off  at  will,  and  carried  in  the  pocket. 

In  his  "Success  In  Bee-Culture,"  Mr.  Heddon  says:  "A 
bee-veil  should  never  be  any  color  but  black,  as  all  other 
shades  are  more  or  less  difficult  to  see  through  clearly,"  and 
we  fully  agree  with  him.  ^Miite  veils  are  most  especially  ob- 
jectionable.    Green  is  the  best  color  after  black. 

387.  The  hands  may  be  protected  by  uidia-rubber  gloves, 
such  as  are  now  in  common  use.  These  gloves,  while  im- 
penetrable to  the  sting  of  a  bee,  do  not  materially  interfere 
with  the  operations  of  the  Apiarist.  As  soon,  however,  as  he 
acquires  confidence  and  skill,  he  will  much  prefer  to  use  noth- 
ing but  the  bee-hat,  even  at  the  expense  of  an  occasional  sting 
on  his  hands. 

An  English  Apiarist  advises  persons  using  gloves  to  cut  the 
tips  of  the  fingers  so  as  to  handle  the  frames  more  dexterously, 
and  to  wash  their  fingers  with  some  kind  of  Apifuge. 

Stings  on  the  hands  usually  cause  but  little  suffering  or 
swelling,  while  stings  on  the  face  are  quite  painful;  and  the 
grotesque  appearance  which  the  swelling  often  gives  to  the 
human  face,  makes  it  much  more  desirable  to  protect  the  head 
than  the  hands. 


19S  HAXDLIXC     BEES. 

If  the  hands  are  wet  with  h(_)ney,  they  will  seldom  be  stung-. 

388.  All  woolen  clothes  are  more  objectionable  to  bees 
than  linen  or  cotton,  for  wool  resembles  the  hair  of  animals, 
being  made  of  it,  while  linen  or  cotton  resembles  the  twigs 
and  leaves  of  plants,  being  made  of  vegetable  fibre.  Butler 
says : 

''They  use  their  stings  against  such  things  as  have  outwardly 
some  offensive  excrement,  such  as  hair  or  feathers,  the  touch 
whereof  provoketh  them  to  sting.  If  they  alight  upon  the  hair 
of  the  head  or  beard,  they  will  sting  if  they  can  reach  the 
skin.  When  they  are  angry  their  aim  is  most  commonly  at 
the  face,  but  the  bare  hand  that  is  not  hairy,  they  will  seldom 
sting,  unless  they  be  much  offended." — (''Feminine  Monarchy," 
1609.) 

389.  In  handling  bees,  it  is  not  always  necessaiy  to  com- 
pel them  to  fill  themselves  with  honey.  With  the  c^uiet  Italians 
(551),  a  few  puffs  of  smoke,  at  the  entrance,  when  opening 
the  hive,  and  occasionally  on  the  combs,  if  they  show  any  dis- 
position to  anger,  are  quite  sufficient  to  keep  them"  down. 
Some  of  our  best  Apiarists  often  open  their  hives  and  handle 
the  bees  without  smoke.  It  takes  practice,  patience  and  firm- 
ness. 

While  the  timid,  if  unprotected,  are  almost  sure  to  be  stung, 
there  is  something  m  the  fearless  movements  of  a  skillful 
operator,  that  seems  to  render  a  colony  submissive  to  his  will. 

390.  Some  races,  however,  like  the  Cyprian  (559),  can- 
not be  controlled  without  a  cloud  of  smoke,  but  they  promptly 
retreat  before  the  overpowering  argument  of  a  good  smoker. 

391.  Bees  can  be  handled  at  all  times;  but  they  are  quietest 
in  the  middle  of  the  day.  At  such  a  time,  the  old  bees,  which 
are  the  crossest  in  the  colony,  are  out  in  the  field.  In  cold, 
cloudy,  or  stormy  w^eather,  they  are  most  irritable,  especially 
if  there  is  a  scarcity  of  honey,  as  the  lurking  robbers  (664) 
excite  the  bees.  Old  bees  that  come  home  loaded,  are  not  cross, 
while  those  going  out  empty,  are  easily  angered.  During  a 
plentiful  honey  flow^,  when  the  hives  are  crowded  for  room,. 


THE   ItOKKV-BEt:   CAPABLE  OF  I'.E1X(J   TAMED.  l!l<J 

the  bees  are  nearly  all  full  of  honey,  and  the  colonies  can  then 
be  handled  without  smoke. 

By  our  methods  you  can  superintend  a  large  apiary,  per- 
forming" every  operation  necessaiy  for  pleasure  or  proiit,  with- 
out as  much  risk  of  being  stung,  as  must  frequently  be  in- 
curred in  attempting-  to  manage  a  single  hive  in  the  old  way. 

392.  .Let  all  your  motions  about  your  hives  be  gentle  and 
slow;  never  crush  or  injure  the  bees;  acquaint  yourself  fully 
Avith  the  principles  of  management  detailed  in  this  treatise, 
and  you  will  find  that  you  have  little  more  reason  to  dread 
the  sting  of  a  bee,  than  the  horns  of  a  favorite  cow,  or  the 
heels  of  your  faithful  horse. 

Cotton,  quoting  from  Butler,  who,  in  these  remarks,  fol- 
lows mainlj'  Columella.,  says: 

393.  ''Listen  to  the  words  of  an  old  writer: — 'If  then  wilt 
have  the  favor  of  thy  bees,  that  they  sting  thee  not,  thou  must 
avoid  such  things  as  offend  them:  thou  must  not  be  unchaste  or 
uncleanly;  for  impurity  and  sluttiness  (themselves  being  most 
chaste  and  neat)  they  utterly  abhor;  thou  must  not  come  among 
them  smelling  of  sweat,  or  having  a  stinking  breath,  caused 
either  through  eating  of  leeks,  onions,  garlick,  and  the  like,  or 
by  any  other  means,  the  noisomeness  whereof  is  corrected  by  a 
cup  of  beer;  thou  must  not  be  given  to  surfeiting  or  drunken- 
ness; thou  must  not  come  puffing  or  blowing  unto  them,  neither 
hastily  stir  among  them,  nor  resolutely  defend  thyself  when 
they  seem  to  threaten  thee;  but  softly  moving  thy  hand  before 
thy  face,  gently  put  them  by;  and  lastly,  thou  must  be  no 
stranger  unto  them.  In  a  word,  thou  must  be  chaste,  cleanly, 
sweet,  sober,  quiet,  and  familiar;  so  will  they  love  thee,  and 
know  thee  from  all  others.  When  nothing  hath  angered  them, 
one  may  safely  walk  along  by  them;  but  if  he  stand  still  be- 
fore them  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  it  is  a  marvel  but  one  or 
other  spying  him,  will  have  a  cast   at  him.'* 


*  Many  persons  imagine  themselves  to  be  quite  safe,  if  they  stand  at 
a  considerable  distance  from  the  hives  ;  whereas,  cross  bees  delight  to 
attack  those  whose  more  distant  position  makes  them  a  surer  mark 
to  their  long-sighted  vision,   than  persons  who  are   close  to  their  hives. 


2^0  HANDLING    BEES. 

"Above  all,  never  blowf  on  them;  they  will  try  to  sting  di- 
rectly, if  you  do. 

"If  you  want  to  catch  any  of  the  bees,  make  a  bold  sweep  at 
them  with  your  hand;  and  if  you  catch  them  without  pressing 
them,  they  will  not  sting.  I  have  so  caught  three  or  four  at  a 
time.  If  you  want  to  do  anything  to  a  single  bee,  catch  him 
*as  if  you  loved  him,'  between  your  finger  and  thumb,  where 
the  tail  joins  on  to  the  body,  and  he  cannot  hurt  you." 

When  gorged  with  honey,  they  may  be  taken  up  by  haud- 
fuls,  and  suffered  to  run  over  the  face,  and  may  even  have 
their  glossy  backs  gently  smoothed  as  they  rest  on  our  per- 
sons; and  all  the  feats  of  the  celebrated  Wildman  may  be 
safely  imitated  by  experts,  who,  by  securing  the  queen,  can 
make  the  bees  hang  in  large  festoons  from  their  chin,  without 
incurring  any  risk  of  being  taken  by  the  beard. 

"Such  was  the  spell,  which  round  a  Wildman 's   arm, 
Twin'd  in  dark   wreaths  the   fascinated  swarm; 
Bright  o'er  his  breast  the  glittering  legions  led. 
Or  with    a   living   garland   bound   his   head. 
His  dextrous  hand,  with  firm  yet  hurtless  hold, 
Could  seize  the  chief,  known  by  her  scales  of  gold. 
Prune    'mid  the  wondering  train  her  filmy  wing, 
Or  o'er  her  folds  the  silken  fetter  fling." 

394.  The  ignorance  of  most  bee-keepers  of  the  almost  un- 
limited control  ivhich  may  he  peaceably  acquired  over  bees, 
has  ever  been  regarded  by  the  author  of  this  treatise  as  the 
greatest  obstacle  to  the  speedy  introduction  of  modern  methods. 
Such  ig-norance  has  led  to  the  invention  of  costly  and  com- 
plicated hives,  all  the  ingenuity  and  expense  lavished  upon 
which,  are  known,  by  the  better  informed,  to  be  as  unneces- 
saiy  as  a  costly  machine  for  lifting  up  bread  and  butter,  and 


t  While  bees  resent  the  warm  breath  exhaled  slowly  from  the  lungs. 
we  have  ascertained,  that  they  will  run  from  a  blast  of  cold  air  blown 
upon  them  by  the  mouth  of  the  operator,  almost  as  quickly  as  from 
smoke.  Before  employing  smoke  Mr.  Langstroth  often  used  a  pair  of 
bellows. 


IGXORANXE  OF  BEE-KEEPERS.  201 

gently  pushing  it  into  the  mouth  and  down  the  throat  of  an 
active  and  healthy  child. 

We  have  before  us  a  small  pamphlet,  published  in  London 
in  1851,  describing  the  construction  of  the  "Bar  and  Frame 
Hive"  of  W.  A.  Munn,  Esq.  The  object  of  this  invention  is 
to  elevate  frames,  one  at  a  time,  into  a  case  with  glass  sides, 
so  that  they  may  be  examined  without  risk  of  annoyance  from 
the  bees.  Great  ingenuity  is  exhibited  by  the  inventor  of  this 
very  costly  and  very  complicated  hive,  who  seems  to  imagine 
tliat  smoke  "must  be  injurious  both  to  the  bees  and  their 
brood." 

395.  In  ojDening  a  hive,  little  danger  may  be  feared  from 
ihe  bees  that  are  exposed  to  the  light,  miless  quick  motions 
are  made,  as  they  are  completely  bewildered  by  their  sudden 
exposure,  and  removal  from  the  hive. 

It  is  not  merely  the  sudden  admission  of  light,  but  its  in- 
troduction from  an  unexpected  quarter,  that  for  the  time,  dis- 
arms the  hostility  of  the  bees.  They  appear,  for  a  few 
moments,  almost  as  much  confounded  as  a  man  would  be,  if, 
without  any  warning,  the  roof  and  ceiling  of  his  house  should 
suddenly  be  torn  from  over  his  head.  Before  they  recover 
from  their  amazement,  they  are  saluted  with  a  puff  of  smoke, 
which,  by  alarming  them  for  the  safety  of  their  treasures, 
induces  them  to  snatch  whatever  they  can.  In  the  working 
season,  the  bees  near  the  top  are  gorged  with  honey;  and 
those  coming  from  below  are  met  in  their  threatening  ascent, 
bj^  a  small  amount  of  harmless  smoke,  which  excites  their  fears^ 
but  leaves  no  mipleasant  smell  behind.  No  genuine  lover  of 
bees  ought  ever  to  use  the  sickening  fumes  of  tobacco. 

396.  Heddon  says  ("Success  in  Bee-Culture,"  page  18)  : 
"I  know  of  but  one  instance  where  the  use  of  smoke  can  do 
hann,  and  that  is  in  smoking  the  guards  of  a  colony  that  is  in 
danger  of  being  robbed."  (664.)  To  this  important  state- 
ment, we  would  add,  that  too  much  smoke  to  a  colony  already 
subdued,  will  drive  them  from  their  combs,  and  often  cause 
them  to  get  in  the  way  of  the  Apiarist. 


202  HANDLING     BEES. 

But  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  repress  by  suiuke, 
the  first  manifestations  of  anger;  for,  as  bees  communicate 
their  sensations  to  each  other  with  ahnost  magic  celerity, 
while  a  whole  colony  will  quickly  catch  the  pleased  or  subdued 
notes  uttered  by  a  few,  it  will  often  be  roused  to  fuiy  by  the 
angry  note  of  a  single  bee.  When  once  they  are  thoroughly 
excited,  it  will  be  found  very  difficult  to  subdue  them,  and 
the  unfortunate  operator,  if  inexperienced,  will  often  abandon 
the  attempt  in  despair. 

It  cannot  be  too  deeply  impressed  upon  the  beginner,  that 
nothing  irritates  bees  more  than  breathing  upon  them,  or 
jarring  their  combs.  Eveiy  motion  should  be  deliberate,  and 
no  attempt  whatever  made  to  strike  at  them.  If  inclined  to 
be  cross,  they  will  often  resent  even  a  quick  pointing  at  them 
with  the  finger,  by  darting  upon  it,  and  leaving  their  stings 
])ehind. 

397.  The  fiist  thing  to  be  done,  after  having  opened  a 
hive  and  removed  the  cloth  (352),  is  to  remove  the  division- 
board  (3-49)  from  the  inside  of  the  hive— to  give  room  for 
handling  the  frames, — with  the  help  of  a  connnon  wood  chisel. 
Then  the  frames  which  have  been  glued  (236)  fast  to  the 
rabbets  bj'  the  bees,  must  be  very  gently  pried  loose;  this  may 
be  done  without  any  serious  jar,  and  without  wounding  or 
enraging  a  single  bee.  They  may  be  all  loosened  for  removal 
in  less  than  a  single  minute. 

If  there  is  no  division-board  (349)  in  the  hive,  the  Apiar- 
ist should  gently  push  the  third  frame  from  either  end  of 
the  hive,  a  little  nearer  to  the  fourth  frame;  and  then  the 
second  as  near  as  he  can  to  the  third,  to  get  ample  room  to 
lift  out  the  end  one,  without  crushing  its  comb,  or  injuring 
any  of  the  bees.  To  remove  it,  he  should  take  hold  of  its 
two  shoulders  which  rest  upon  the  rabbets,  and  carefully  lift 
it,  so  as  to  crush  no  bees  by  letting  it  touch  the  sides  of  the 
hive,  or  the  next  frame.  If  it  is  desired  to  remove  any  par- 
ticular frame,  room  must  be  gained  by  moving,  in  the  same 
way,  the  adjoining  ones  on  each  side.     As  bees  usually  build 


REMOVING    FRAMES. 


203 


their  combs  slightly  waving,  it  will  be  found  impossible  to 
remove  a  frame  safely,  without  making  room  for  it  in  this 
wa}'.  If  the  combs  are  built  on  foundation  (674:),  however, 
they  will  be  much  easier  to  remove,  as  they  are  then  perfectly 
straight.  In  handling  heavy  frames  in  hot  weather,  be  care- 
ful not  to  incline  them  from  their  perpendicular^  or  the  combs 
will  be  liable  to  break  from  their  own  weight,  and  fall  out  of 
the  frames. 

If  more  combs  are  to  be  examined,  after  lifting  out  the 
/)utside  frame,  set  it  carefully  on  end,  near  the  hive,  when 
the  second  one  may  be  easily  moved  towards  the  vacant  space. 


Fig.  94. 

COAIB-BUCKET. 


and  lifted  out.  After  examination,  put  it  in  the  place  of  the 
one  first  removed ;  in  the  same  way,  examine  the  third,  and 
put  it  in  the  place  of  the  second,  and  so  proceed  until  all  have 
been  examined.  If  a  division-board  is  used,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  set  any  of  the  frames  down  outside  of  the  hive, 
as  the  removal  of  this  board  will  leave  one  vacant  space  in  the 
hive. 

If  the  frames,  as  they  are  removed,  are  put  into  an  empty 
Iiivc,  cr  a  comb-bucket,  they  may  be  protected  from  the  cold, 
and  from  robber-bees. 

The   inexperienced   operator,   who    sees   that   the  bees  have 


204  HANDLING     BEES. 

built  small  pieces  of  comb,  or  bridges  (325),  between  the 
outside  of  the  frames  and  the  sides  of  the  hive,  or  slightly 
fastened  together  some  parts  of  their  combs,  may  imaghie 
that  the  frames  cannot  be  removed  at  all.  Such  slight  attach- 
ments, however,  offer  no  practical  difficulty  to  their  removal.* 
The  great  point  to  be  gained,  is  to  secure  a  single  comb  on 
each  frame;  and  this  is  effected  by  the  use  of  the  triangular 
comb-guides,  or  better,  by  comb-foundation  (674). 

If  bees  were  disposed  to  fly  away  from  their  combs,  as 
soon  as  they  are  taken  out,  mstead  of  adhering  to  them 
with  such  remarkable  tenacity,  it  would  be  far  more  difficult 
to  manage  them;  but  even  if  their  combs,  when  removed, 
are  all  arranged  in  a  continued  line,  the  bees,  and  most 
especially  the  Italian  bees,  instead  of  leaving  them,  will 
stoutly  defend  them  against  the  thieving  propensities  of  other 
bees. 

398.  In  returning  the  frames,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
crush  the  bees  between  them  and  the  rabbets  on  which  they 
rest;  they  should  be  put  in  so  slowly,  that  a  bee,  on  feeling 
the  slightest  pressure,  may  have  a  chance  to  creep  from  under 
them  before  it  is  hurt. 

The  frames  should  be  returned,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the 
same  position,  as  they  were  found,  with  the  brood  in  the 
foi'ward  part  of  the  hive,  and  the  honey  in  the  back,  for 
bees  always  live  and  breed  in  front  of  their  stores,  to  more 
easily  defend  their  treasures  against  intruders. 

In  shutting  up  the  hive,  the  surplus  stoiy,  if  any  is  there, 
should  be  carefully  lowered,  so  that  any  bees  which  are  in 


*  If  sufficient  room  for  storing  surplus  honey  is  not  given  to  a  strong 
(.olony,  in  its  anxiety  to  amass  as  much  as  possible,  it  will  fill  the 
smallest  accessible  places.  If  the  bees  build  comb  between  the  tops 
cf  the  frames  and  the  under  side  of  the  upper  story,  it  can  be  easily  cut 
off,  and  used  for  wax.  If  this  shallow  chamber  were  not  used,  they 
would  fasten  the  upper  story  to  the  frames  so  tightly,  that  it  would  be 
very  difficult  to  remove  it ;  and  every  time  it  was  taken  off,  they  would 
glue  it  still  faster,  so  that,  at  last,  it  would  be  well  nigh  impossible 
in  getting  it  off,  not  to  start  the  frames  so  as  to  crush  the  bees  between 
the  combs. 


MISMANAGEMENT    OF    BEES.  265 

the  way  may  be  given  a  chance  to  move  away,  mstead  of 
being  crushed.  A  little  smoke  is  always  necessary.  A  be- 
ginner will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  practice— using  an 
empty  hive— the  directions  for  opening  and  shutting  hives, 
and  lifting  out  the  frames,  until  confident  that  he  fully  under- 
stands them.  If  any  bees  are  where  they  would  be  im- 
prisoned by  closing  the  upper  cover,  it  should  be  propped  up 
a  little,  until  they  have  flown  to  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  or, 
they  may  be  brushed  away  gently. 

Mismanagement  of   Bees. 

399.  When  a  colony  of  bees  is  miskillfully  dealt  with, 
they  will  "compass  about"  their  assailant  with  savage  ferocity ; 
and  woe  be  to  him,  if  they  can  creep  up  his  clothes,  or  find 
a  single  unprotected  spot  on  his  person. 

Xot  the  slightest  attempt  should  be  made  to  act  on  the 
offensive;  for,  if  a  single  one  is  struck  at,  others  will  avenge 
the  insult;  and  if  resistance  is  continued,  hundreds,  and  at 
last,  thousands,  will  join  them.  The  assailed  party  should 
quickty  retreat  to  the  protection  of  a  building,  or,  if  none  is 
near,  should  hide  in  a  clump  of  bushes,  and  lie  perfectly  still, 
with  his  head  covered,  until  the  bees  leave  him.  When  no 
bushes  are  at  hand,  they  will  generally  give  over  the  attack, 
if  he  lies  still  on  the  grass,  with  his  face  to  the  ground.  A 
practical  Apiarist,  sheltered  with  a  veil  and  armed  with  a  well 
lighted  smoker,  will  not  retreat  much  before  the  most  ferocious 
swarm  of  bees. 

Those  who  are  alarmed  if  a  bee  enters  the  house,  or  ap- 
proaches them  in  the  garden  or  fields,  are  ignorant  of  the 
important  fact,  that  a  bee,  at  a  distance  from  its  hive,  never 
volunteers  an  attack.  Even  if  assaulted,  they  seek  only  to 
escape,  and  never  sting,  unless  they  are  hurt. 

If  they  were  as  easily  provoked  away  from  home,  as  when 
called  to  defend  those  sacred  precincts,  a  tithe  of  the  meny 
gambols,    in    Avhich     our    domestic     animals    indulge,    would 


speedily  bring  about  tliein  a  swann  of  iiit'uriated  enemies; 
Ave  should  be  no  longer  safe  in  our  (juiet  rambles  among 
the  green  fields;  and  no  jticund  mower  could  whet  or  swing 
his  peaceful  scythe,  unless  clad  in  a  dress  impervious  to  their 
stings.  The  bee,  instead  of  being  the  friend  of  man,  would, 
like  savage  wild  beasts,  provoke  his  utmost  efforts  for  its 
extermination. 

100.  Huber  has  demonstrated  that  bees  have  an  exceed- 
ingly acute  sense  of  smell  and  that  unpleasant  odors  rjuicklj- 
excite  their  anger. 

Strong  perfumes,  however  pleasant  to  us,  are  disagreeable 
to  them;  and  Aristotle  observes,  that  they  will  sting  those 
scented  with  them.  We  have  known  i:)ersons  ignorant  of  this 
fact  to  be  severely  treated  bv'  bees. 

Some  persons,  however  cleanly,  are  assaulted  by  bees  as 
soon  as  they  approach  their  hives.  It  is  related  of  a 
distinguished  Apiarist  that  after  a  severe  attack  of  fever,  he 
was  never  able  to  be  on  good  terms  with  his  bees.  That  they 
can  readily  perceive  the  slightest  differences  in  smell,  is  ap- 
parent from  the  fact  that  any  number  of  bees,  fed  from  a 
common  vessel,  will  be  gentle  towards  each  other,  while  they 
will  assail  the  first  strange  bee  that  alights  on  the  feeder. 

Butler  said,  "Their  smelling  is  excellent,  whereby,  wlieu 
they  fly  aloft  into  the  air,  they  will  quickly  perceive  anything 
under  them  that  they  like,  even  though  it  be  covered."  They 
have,  therefore,  a  special  dislike  to  those  whose  habits  are 
not  neat,  and  who  bear  about  them  a  perfume  not  in  the  least 
resembling 

"  Sab can  odors 
From  tlic  spicy  shores  of  Araby  the  blest." 

A  horse,  when  assailed  by  them,  is  often  killed;  as  in- 
stead of  running  away,  like  most  other  animals,  it  will  plunge 
and  kick  until  it  falls  overpowered.  The  apiary  should  be 
fenced  in,  to  prevent  horses  and  cattle  from  molesting  the 
Vives,     We  have  known    of  n   horse,   which   happening  to  be 


nF:.\n:i)rK;^  for  tiik  sTix(i  of  a  nv.t.  20 1 

loose  ill  a  bee-yard,  was  attacked  by  a  few  bees.  In  trying- 
to  defend  himself  a.ijainst  theni  by  kicking  and  rolling  he  up- 
set one  hive  and  then  another,  till  tens  of  thousands  of  bees 
assailed  him,  and  the  poor  animal  was  stung  to  death  before 
his  owner  could  come  to  the  rescue.  We  were  informed  by  an 
eye-witness  that  although  the  carcass  remained  imburied  two 
days,  neither  dogs,  crows,  buzzards  nor  any  of  the  usual 
scavengers  of  decaying  flesh,  attempted  to  feed  upon  it,  so 
great  was  the  amount  of  poison  \,79)  instilled  mto  it  by  the 
revengeful  bees. 

101.  The  sting  of  a  bee  {7S)  upon  some  jDersons,  pro- 
duces very  painful,  and  even  dangerous  effects.  We  have 
often  noticed  that,  while  those  whose  systems  are  not  sensi- 
ti^■e  to  the  venom,  are  rarely  molested  by  bees,  they  seem  to 
take  a  malicious  pleasure  in  stinging  those  upon  whom  their 
poison  produces  the  most  virulent  effect.  Something  in  the 
secretions  of  such  persons  may  both  provoke  the  attack  and 
render  its  consequences  more  severe. 

The  smell  of  their  own  j^oison  (S^j  produces  a  very  irri- 
tating effect  upon  bees.  A  small  portion  of  it  offered  to  them 
on  a  stick,  will  excite  their  anger. 

'  *  If  you  are  stung, ' '  says  old  Butler,  ' '  or  any  one  in  the  com- 
pany— yea,  though  a  bee  hath  stricken  but  your  clothes,  es- 
pecially in  hot  weather — you  were  best  be  packing  as  fast  as 
you  can,  for  the  other  bees,  smelling  the  rank  flavor  of  the 
poison,  will  come  about  you  as  thick  as  hail." 

REMEDIES    FOR    THE    STIXG    OF    A    BEE. 

1Q2.  If  only  a  few  of  the  host  of  cures,  so  zealously  ad- 
vocated, could  be  made  effectual,  there  would  be  little  reason 
to  drea<l  being  stung. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  after  being  stung  is  to  pull  — 
or  rather  push— the  sting  out  of  the  womid  as  qitickhj  as  pos- 
sible. When  torn  from  the  bee,  the  poison-bag  and  all  the 
muscles  which  control  the  sting  accompany  it;  and  it  pene- 
trates deeper  and  deeper  into  the  flesh,  injecting  continually 


50S  IIAN'DLIN'G    nr.Rs. 

more  and  more  poison  into  the  wound.  If  extracted  at  once, 
it  will  very  rarelj-  produce  any  serious  consequences;  but,  in 
extracting  it,  it  should  not  be  taken  between  the  fingers.  In 
so  doing,  most  of  the  poison  will  be  pressed  mto  the  wound. 
It  must  be  rubbed  or  scraped  off  with  celerity  by  a  quick  mo- 
tion of  the  finger-nail  so  as  to  prevent  any  more  of  the 
poison  of  the  sack  from  getting  into  the  flesh.  After  the 
sting  is  removed  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  not  to  irri- 
tate the  wound  by  the  slightest  rubbing.  However  intense  the 
smarting,  and  the  disposition  to  apply  friction  to  the  wound, 
it  should  never  be  done  for  the  moment  that  the  blood  is  put 
into  violent  circulation,  the  poison  is  quickly  diffused  over 
a  large  part  of  the  system,  and  severe  pain  and  swelling  may 
ensue.  On  the  same  principle,  by  severe  friction,  the  bite  of  a 
mosquito,  even  after  the  lapse  of  several  days,  may  be  made 
to  swell  again.  As  most  of  the  popular  remedies  are  rubbed 
in,  thej'  are  worse  than  nothing. 

When  the  operator  is  perspiring  abundantly,  the  stings  are 
less  painful,  as  some  of  the  poison  exudes  with  the  sweat. 

If  the  mouth  is  applied  to  the  wound,  unpleasant  conse- 
quences may  follow;  for,  while  the  poison  of  snakes,  affect- 
ing only  the  circulating  system,  may  be  swallowed  with  impuni- 
ty, the  poison  of  the  bee  acts  with  great  power  on  the  organs 
of  digestion.  Distressing  headaches  are  often  produced  by  it, 
as  any  one,  who  has  been  stung,  or  has  tasted  the  poison,  veiy 
well  knows. 

403.  In  our  own  experience,  we  have  found  cold  water  to 
be  the  best  remedy  for  a  bee-sting.  The  poison  is  quickly 
dissolved  in  it :  and  the  coldness  of  the  water  has  also  a  power- 
ful tendency  to  check  inflammation. 

The  leaves  of  plantain,  crushed  and  applied  to  the  wound, 
are  a  very  good  substitute,  when  water  cannot  at  once  be 
procured.  Bevan  recommends  the  use  of  spirits  of  hartshorn, 
and  says  that,  in  cases  of  severe  stinging,  its  internal  use  is 
also  beneficial.  In  veiy  serious  cases,  the  ammonia  may  be 
taken,   in    quantities  of   from    five  to   twenty  drops,— for  an 


REMEDIES  FOR  THE  STIXG  OF  A  BEE.  209 

adult,  less  for  a  child,  — in  hot  tea,  with  beneficial  results.  It 
causes  an  increased  perspiration  and  neutralizes  the  effects  of 
the  poison.  ("Commentaires  Therapeutiques,"  Gubler,  Paris, 
1S74.) 

40-1:.  It  may  be  some  comfort  to  novices  to  know  that 
the  poison  will  produce  less  and  less  effect  upon  their  sys- 
tem. Old  bee-keepers  like  Mithridates,  appear  almost  to 
thrive  upon  poison  itself.  When  we  first  became  interested 
in  bees,  a  sting  was  quite  a  formidable  thing,  the  pain  being 
often  veiy  intense,  and  the  wound  swelling  so  as  sometimes  to 
obstruct  our  sight.  At  present,  the  pain  is  usually  slight,  and, 
if  the  sting  is  quickly  extracted,  no  unpleasant  consequences 
ensue,  even  if  no  remedies  are  used.  Huish  speaks  of  seeing 
the  bald  head  of  Bonner,  a  celebrated  practical  Apiarist,  cov- 
ered with  stings,  which  seenied  to  produce  upon  him  no  mi- 
pleasant  effects.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Kleine  advises  beginners  to 
allow  themselves  to  be  stung  frequently,  assuring  them  that, 
in  two  seasons,  their  system  will  become  accustomed  to  the 
l^^ison ! 

An  old  English  Apiarist  advises  a  person  \\ho^  has  beeu 
stmig,  to  catch  another  bee  as  speedily  as  possible,  and  make 
it  sting  on  the  same  spot.  Even  an  enthusiastic  disciple  of 
Huber  might  hesitate  to  venture  on  such  a  singular  homoeo- 
pathic remedy;  but,  as  this  Apiarist  had  stated,  what  we  had 
verified  in  our  own  experience,  that  the  oftener  a  j^erson  is 
stung  the  less  he  suffers  from  the  venom,  the  writer  deteiTnhied 
to  make  trial  of  his  prescription.  Allowing  a  string  to  re- 
mam  until  it  had  discharged  all  of  its  poison,  he  compelled 
another  bee  to  insert  its  sting,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the 
same  spot.  He  used  no  remedies  of  any  kind,  and  had  the 
satisfaction,  in  his  zeal  for  new  discoveries,  of  suffering 
more  from  the  pain  and  swelling  than  for  years  before. 

That  the  bee-keeper  becomes  inocu'ated  with  the  poison 
of  the  bee,  and  usually  becomes  proof  against  it,  is  no  more 
to  be  doubted  than  the  fact  that  vaccination  is  a  preservative 
against  small-pox.     The  discoveries  of  Pasteur,  for  the  cure 


210  HAXDLIN(J     BEES. 

of    hydrophobia,    are    another    evidence    of    the    etlieieney    (»f 
inoculation. 

The  poison  of  the  bee  has  a  beneficial  effect  as  a  cure  for 
i-heuniatisni.  Numberless  cases  have  been  reported  where  a 
few  stings  have  caused  the  disappearance  of  this  affection. 

Bees  as  ]\Ieaxs  of  Defense. 

405.  "A  small  corsair,  equipped  with  forty  or  fifty  men, 
and  having  on  board  some  bees,  purposely  taken  from  a  neigh- 
boring island,  and  confined  in  earthen  hives  (  275  ),  was  pur- 
sued by  a  Turkish  galley.  As  the  latter  boarded  her,  the  sailors 
threw  the  hives  from  the  masts  down  into  the  galley.  The 
earthen  hives  broke  into  fragments  and  the  bees  dispersed  all 
over  the  boat.  The  Turks  who  had  looked  on  the  small  corsair 
with  contempt,  as  an  easy  prey,  did  not  expect  so  singular  an 
attack.  Finding  themselves  defenseless  against  the  stings,  they 
were  so  frightened,  that  the  men  of  the  corsair,  who  had  pro- 
vided themselves  with  masks  and  gloves,  took  possession  of  the 
galley,  almost  without  resistance." 

*'Amurat,  Emperor  of  Turkey,  having  besieged  Alba,  and 
made  a  breach  in  the  walls,  found  the  I'rcach  defended  b}'  bees, 
whose  hives  had  been  brought  on  the  ruins.  The  Janissaries, 
the  bravest  militia  of  the  Ottoman  empire_,  refused  to  clear  the 
obstacle."— (Delia  Roeca,  1790.) 


CHAPTER  VI. 


XATUKAL    SWARillNG. 


-100.  Ill  the  Spring,  as  soon  as  the  combs  of  a  hive,  well 
fillecl,  can  no  longer  accommodate  its  teeming  population,  the 
bees  prepare  for  emigration,  or  in  other  words,  for  depart- 
ing with  their  queen,  by  building  a  number  of  royal-cells 
(104).  These  cells  are  begun  about  the  time  that  the  drones 
make  their  appearance  in  the  open  air;  and  when  the  young- 
queens  arrive  at  maturity,  the  males  are  usually  very  numer- 
ous   (186). 

The  swarming  of  bees  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  sights 
in  the  whole  compass  of  rural  economj'.  Although  those 
who  use  movable-comb  hives  x^refer  the  artificial  multiplica- 
tion of  colonies,  it  bemg  more  profitable,  all  Apiarists  de- 
light in  the  pleasing  excitement  of  natural  swarming. 

''Up  mounts  the  chief,  and  to  the  cheated  eye 
Ten  thousand  shuttles  dart  along  the  sky; 
As  swift  through  aether  rise  the  rushing  swarms, 
Gay  dancing  to  the  beam  their  sun-bright  forms; 
And  each  thin  form,  still  ling 'ring  on  the  sight, 
Trails,  as  it  shoots,  a  line  of  silver  light. 
High  pois'd  on  buoyant  wing,  the  thoughtful  queen, 
In  gaze  attentive,  views  the  varied  scene. 
And  soon  her  far-fetch 'd  ken  discerns  below 
The  light  laburnum  lift   her  polish 'd  brow, 
"Wave  her  green  leafy  ringlets  o  'er  the  glade. 
And  seem  to  beckon  to  her  friendly  shade. 
Swift  as  the  falcon 's  sweep,  the  monarch  bands 
Her  tlight  abrupt;  the  following  host  descends. 
Round  the  fine  twig,  like  cluster 'd  grapes,  they  close 
In  thickening  wreaths,  and  court  a  short  repose. ' ' 

— Evans. 

407.  Bees  sometimes  abandon  their  hives  very  early  in 
Spring,  or  even   late  in   Summer  or  Fall    (264).     Although 

211 


212  NATURAL    SWARMING. 

exhibiting  the  appearance  of  natural  swarming,  they  leave, 
not  because  the  population  is  so  crowded  that  they  wish  to 
form  new  colonies,  but  because  it  is  either  so  small,  or  the 
hive  so  destitute  of  supplies,  that  they  are  driven  to  desper- 
ation. Seeming  to  have  a  presentiment  that  they  must  perish 
if  they  stay,  instead  of  awaiting  the  sure  approach  of  famine, 
they  sally  out  to  see  if  they  cannot  better  their  condition. 


FIG.    95. 

GATHERIXG   A   SWARM, 

From   Mont-Jovet,   Savoie,   France. 

Such  desertions  should  not  be  mistaken  for  natural  swarming 
408.  The  time,  when  new  swarms  may  be  expected,  de- 
pends, of  course,  upon  the  climate,  the  forwardness  of  the 
season,  and  the  strength  of  the  colonies.  In  our  Northern 
and  Middle  States,  they  seldom  issue  before  the  latter  part 
of   May,    and    .June   may   there   be   considered   as   the   great 


PRIMARY   SWAR-\r.  213, 

swarming  montli.     In  Texas,  on  the  lower  Rio  Grande,  bees 
often  swarm  quite  early  in  March. 

Swarming-  does  not  alwaj's  take  place  in  Spring,  although 
this  is  the  usual  time  for  it.  Swarms  are  likely  to  issue  in 
any  locality,  whenever  the  hive  is  crowded  for  room,  or  nearly 
so,  during  a  good  and  prolonged  honey-harvest.  In  warm 
latitudes,  it  lasts  for  several  months,  owing  to  a  continuous 
flow  of  honey.  Wherever  there  are  two  distinct  honey  crops 
(705),  there  are  also  two  swarming  seasons,  especially  along 
the  low  lands  or  river  bottoms,  where  Fall  pasturage  is 
abundant.  Swarms,  hived  during  the  forej^art  of  either  of 
these  honey  seasons,  are  alwaj's  the  best ;  having  a  few  weeks 
of  honey  crop  before  them,  they  have  ample  time  to  build 
comb  and  fill  it  with  honey  and  brood;  while  swarms  which 
are  cast  during  the  latter  part  of  either  the  clover  or  tlie  Fall 
harvest,  coming  as  they  do,  just  before  a  dearth  of  honey,  are 
unable  to  build  comb  and  raise  brood,  and  easily  perish,  if  left 
to  themselves.  Thus,  a  swarm  harvested  in  August,  in  this 
latitude,  at  the  opening  of  the  Fall  crop,  stands  better 
chances  than  one  harvested  in  July,  at  the  close  of  the  clover 
and  basswood  crop. 

First  or  Primary  Swarm. 

409.  The  first  swarm  is  almost  invariably  led  off  by  the 
old  queen,  unless  she  has  died  from  accident  or  disease, 
when  it  is  accompanied  by  one  of  the  young  ones  reared  to 
supply  her  loss.  There  are  no  sig-ns  from  which  the  Apiarist 
can  predict  the  certain  issue  of  a  first  swarm.  For  years, 
wc  spent  much  time  in  the  vain  attempt  to  discover  some 
infaUihle  indications  of  first  swarming;  until  facts  convinced 
us  that  there  can  be  no  such  indications. 

410.  If  the  weather  is  unpleasant,  or  the  blossoms  yield 
an  insufficient  supply  of  honey,  bees  often  change  their  minds, 
and  refuse  to  swarm  at  all.  If.  in  the  swarming  season,  but 
few  bees  leave  a  strong  hive,  on  a  clear,  calm,  and  warm  day, 


214  NATURAL    SWARMIXt;. 

wlien  otlier  colonies  are  busily  at  woi-k,  we  may  look  with 
j^reat  confidence  for  a  swarm,  unless  the  weather  prove  sud- 
denly  unfavorable. 

If  the  weather  is  ver}'  sultry,  a  swarm  will  sometimes  issue 
as  early  as  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning';  but  from  ten  a.  m._, 
to  two  p.  M.^  is  the  usual  time;  and  the  majority  of  swarms 
come  off  when  the  sun  is  within  an  hour  of  the  meridian.  Oc- 
casionally, a  swarm  ventures  out  as  late  as  five  p.  m.;  but  an 
old  fjueen  is  seldom  guilty  of  such  an  indiscretion. 

41 1.  Wc  have  repeatedly  witnessed  in  our  observing- 
hives  (374)  the  whole  process  of  swarming.  On  the  day 
fixed  for  departure,  the  queen  is  veiy  restless,  and  instead 
of  depositing  her  eggs  in  the  cells,  roams  over  the  combs,  and 
communicates  her  agitation  to  the  whole  colony.  The  emi- 
grating bees  usually  fill  themselves  with  honey,  just  before 
their  departure;  but  in  one  instance,  we  saw  them  lay  in  their 
sui^plies  more  than  two  hours  before  they  left.  A  short  time 
before  the  swarm  rises,  a  few  bees  may  generally  be  seen 
sporting  in  the  air,  with  their  heads  turned  always  to  the 
hive;  and  they  occasionally  fiy  in  and  out,  as  though  impa- 
tient for  the  important  event  to  take  place.  At  length,  a 
violent  agitation  commences  in  the  hive;  the  bees  appear  al- 
most frantic,  whirling  aroimd  in  circles  continually  enlarging, 
like  those  made  by  a  stone  thrown  into  still  water,  until,  at 
last,  the  whole  hive  is  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  ferment,  and 
the  bees,  rushing  impetuously  to  the  entrance,  pour  forth  in 
one  steady  stream.  Not  a  bee  looks  behind,  but  each  pushes 
straight  ahead,  as  though  flying  '*for  dear  life,''  or  urged  on 
by  some  invisible  power,  in  its  headlong  career, 

412.  Often,  the  queen  does  not  come  out  until  many  have 
left;  and  she  is  sometimes  so  heavy,  from  the  number  of  eggs 
in  her  ovaries,  that  she  falls  to  the  ground,  incapable  of 
rising  with  her  colony  into  the  air  (40).  The  bees  soon  miss 
her,  and  a  very  interesting  scene  may  now  be  witnessed.  Dili- 
gent search  is  at  once  made  for  their  lost  mother;  the  swarm 
scattering  in  all  directions,  so  that  the  leaves  of  the  adjoining 


I'KIMAKV    SWAKAi.  •  215 

trees  and  bushes  are  often  covered  almost  as  quickly  with 
anxious  explorers,  as  with  drops  of  rain  after  a  co^Dious 
shower.  If  she  cannot  be  found,  they  commonly  return  to 
the  old  hive,  in  from  'live  to  fifteen  minutes. 

413.  The  ringing  of  bells  and  beating  of  kettles  and  fry- 
ing-pans to  cause  swarms  to  settle,  is  probably  not  a  whit 
more  efficacious,  than  the  hideous  noises  of  some  savage  tribes, 
who,  imagining  that  the  sun,  in  an  eclipse,  has  been  swallowed 
by  an  enormous  dragon,  resort  to  such  means  to  compel  his 
snakeship  to  disgorge  their  favorite  luminary. 

Many  who  have  never  practiced  "tanging,"  have  never  had 
a  swarm  leave  without  settling.  Still,  as  one  of  the  "country 
sounds,"  and  as  a  relic  of  the  olden-times,  even  the  most 
matter-of-fact  bee-man  can  readily  excuse  the  enthusiasm  of 
that  pleasant  writer  in  the  London  Quarterly  Review,  who  dis- 
courses as  follows: 

'  *  Some  fine,  warm  morning  in  May  or  June,  the  whole  atmos- 
phere seems  alive  with  thousands  of  bees,  whirling  and  buzzing, 
passing  and  repassing,  wheeling  about  in  rapid  circles,  like  a 
group  of  maddened  bacchanals.  Out  runs  the  good  housewife, 
with  frying-pan  and  key — the  orthodox  instruments  for  ringing 
— and  never  ceases  her  rough  music,  till  the  bees  have  settled. 
This  custom,  as  old  as  the  birth  of  Jupiter,  is  one  of  the  most 
pleasing  and  exciting  of  the  countryman's  life;  and  there  is  an 
old  colored  print  of  bee-ringing  still  occasionally  met  with  on 
the  walls  of  a  country-inn,  that  has  charms  for  us,  and  makes 
us  think  of  bright,  sunny  weather  in  the  dreariest  November 
day.  Whether,  as  Aristotle  says,  it  affects  them  through  pleas- 
ure or  fear,  or  whether,  indeed,  they  hear  it  at  all,  is  still  as 
uncertain  as  that  philosopher  left  it;  but  we  can  wish  no  bet- 
ter luck  to  every  bee-master  that  neglects  the  tradition,  than 
that  he  may  lose  every  swarm  for  which  he  omits  to  raise  this 
time-honored  concert." 

414.  The  queen  sometimes  alights  first,  and  sometimes 
joins  the  cluster  after  it  has  begun  to  fonn.  The  bees  do 
not  usually  settle,  unless  she  is  with  them;  and  when  they 
do,   and  then   disperse,  it  is  frequently  the  case  that,  after 


216  NATL'KAL    SWAKMlXiJ. 

first  rising-  witii  them,  she  lias  fallen,  Ironi  weakness,  into 
some  spot  where  she  is  unnoticed  by  the  bees. 

Perceiving  a  hive  in  the  act  of  swarming,  the  writer  on 
two  occasions,  contracted  the  entrance,  to  secure  the  queen 
when  she  should  make  her  appearance.  In  each  case,  at 
least  one-third  of  the  bees  came  out  before  she  joined  them. 
As  soon  as  the  swarm  ceased  searching  for  her,  and  were  re- 
turning to  the  parent-hive,  he  placed  her,  with  her  wings 
clipped,  on  a  limb  of  a  small  evergreen  tree,  when  she  crawled 
to  the  very  top  of  the  limb,  as  if  for  the  express  purpose  of 
making  herself  as  conspicuous  as  possible.  The  few  bees, 
that  first  noticed  her,  instead  of  alighthig,  darted  rapidly  to 
their  companions;  in  a  few  seconds,  the  whole  colony  was  ap- 
prised of  her  presence,  and  flying  in  a  dense  cloud,  began 
quietly  to  cluster  around  her.  Bees,  when  on  the  wing,  inter- 
communicate with  such  surprising  rapidity,  that  telegrajihie 
signals  are  scarcely  more  instantaneous. 

415.  That  bees  send  out  scouts  to  seek  a  suitable  abode, 
admits  of  no  serious  question.  Swarms  have  been  traced 
directly  to  their  new  home,  in  an  air-line  flight,  from  the 
place  where  thej'  clustered  after  alighting.  Now  this  pre- 
cision of  flight  to  an  unknown  home,  would  plainly  be  im- 
possible, if  some  of  their  number,  by  previous  explorations, 
were  not  competent  to  act  as  guides  to  the  rest.  The  sight 
of  bees  for  distant  objects  is  so  wonderfully  acute,  that,  after 
rising  to  a  sufficient  elevation,  they  can  see,  at  the  distance  of 
several  miles,  any  prominent  objects  in  the  vicinity  of  their  in- 
tended  abode.      (13-14.) 

Whether  bees  send  out  scouts  before  or  after  swarming, 
may  admit  of  more  question,  but  these  scouts  are  usually  ab- 
sent for  an  hour  or  more,  after  the  alighting  of  the  swarm. 

It  is  probable  that  most  of  the  scouts  are  sent  during  the 
alighting;  otherwise  how  could  they  know  where  the  swarm 
alighted,  so  as  to  come  back  to  it? 

The  necessity  for  scouts  or  explorers  seems  to  be  unquestion- 
able, unless  we  admit  that  bees  have  the  faculty  of  flying  in  an 


PRIMARY   S\^ARiI.  217 

''air  line/'  to  a  hollow  tree,  which  they  have  never  seen,  and 
which  may  be  the  only  one  among*  thousands  where  they  can 
find  a  suitable  abode. 

These  views  are  conlirmed  by  the  repeated  instances  in 
which  a  few  bees  have  been  noticed  inquisitively  prying  into 
a  hole  m  a  hollow  tree,  or  the  cornice  of  a  building,  and  have,, 
before  long,  been  followed  by  a  whole  colony. 

About  fifty  yards  from  our  home  apiary,  there  was  a  large 
hoUoAV  oak  tree,  which  v^^e  called  '^The  Squirrel's  Oak,"  be- 
cause eveiy  season  it  sheltered  a  family  of  these  pretty  ani- 
mals. One  Summer  we  noticed  for  several  days  some  bees 
flying,  in  and  out  of  a  hole,  in  one  of  its  largest  limbs.  It 
seemed  to  us  that  they  were  cleaning  the  hollow,  and  we  sup- 
posed that  a  swarm  had  taken  possession  of  it.  A  change  in 
the  weather  liavmg  taken  place,  the  swarming  preparations 
were  discontinued,  and  we  never  again  noticed  any  bees  around 
the  limb.  The  tree  was  cut  down  the  following  Whiter,  and 
no  trace  of  comb  was  found  in  the  hollow.  It  proved  conclu- 
sively that  the  bees  we  had  seen  were  scouts  in  search  of  a 
lodging. 

41(>.  The  swarm  sometimes  remains  until  the  next  day, 
Avhere  bees  have  clustered  in  leaving  the  hive,  and  instances 
are  not  mi  frequent  of  a  more  protracted  delay. 

If  the  weather  is  hot  when  they  first  cluster,  and  the  sun 
shines  directly  upon  them,  they  Avill  often  leave  before  they 
have  found  a  suitable  habitation.  Sometimes  the  queen  of 
emigrating  bees,  being  heavy  with  eggs,  unaccustomed  to  fiy, 
is  compelled  to  alight,  before  she  can  reach  their  intended 
home.  Queens  under  such  circumstances,  are  occasionally  un- 
willing to  take  Aving  again,  and  the  poor  bees  sometimes  at- 
tempt to  lay  the  foundations  of  their  colony  on  fence-rails, 
hay-stacks,  or  other  unsuitable  places. 

Mr.  Wagner  once  kneAv  a  SAvarm  of  bees  to  lodge  under  the 
loAvermost  limb  of  an  isolated  oak-tree,  in  a  corn-field.  It 
was  not  discoA'ered  until  the  corn  Avas  harA^ested,  in  September. 
Those  AAiio  found  it,  mistook  it  for  a  recent  swarm,  and  in 


218  NATURAL    S\V  ARMING. 

brushiiii*:  it  down  tu  hive  it,  broke  off  three  pieces  of  comb, 
each  about  eight  inches  square.  Mr.  Heniy  M.  Zollickoffer, 
of  Philadelphia,  informed  us  that  he  knew  a  swarm  to  settle 
on  a  willow-tree  in  that  city,  in  a  lot  owned  by  the  Pennsj^l- 
vania  Hospital;  it  remained  there  for  some  time,  and  the 
boys  pelted  it  with  stones,  to  get  possession  of  its  comb  and 
honey. 

If  the  apiaiy  is  located  in  the  woods,  and  the  bees  are 
allowed  to  swarm,  they  may  settle  on  high  trees,  and  the  bee- 
master,  unless  some  special  precautions  are  used,  will  lose 
much  time  in  hiving  his  swarms. 

417.  Having  noticed  that  swarming  bees  will  almost  al- 
ways alight  wherever  they  see  others  clustered,  we  found 
that  they  can  be  determined  to  some  selected  spot  by  an  old 
black  hat,  or  even  a  muUen-stalk,  which,  when  colored  black, 
can  hardly  be  distinguished,  at  a  distance,  from  a  clustering 
swarm.  A  black  woolen  stocking  or  piece  of  cloth,  fastened 
to  a  shady  limb,  or  to  a  pole,  in  plain  sight  of  the  hives,  and 
where  the  bees  c^n  be  most  conveniently  hived,  would  answer 
as  good  a  purpose.  Swarms  are  not  only  attracted  by  the 
bee-like  color  of  such  objects,  but  are  more  readily  mduced 
to  alight  \x\)o\\  them,  if  they  furnish  something  to  which  they 
can  easil}'  cling,  the  better  to  support  their  grape-like  clus- 
ters. 

Still  better  than  the  above,  a  frame  of  dry  comb,  as  dark 
as  possible,  will  often  attract  the  bees  and  cause  them  to  clus- 
ter. None  of  these  devices  however  are  infallible;  hence  the 
advisability  of  locating  an  apiaiy  among  low  trees  or  bushes, 
or  in  an  orchard,  if  possible. 

When  no  trees  or  bushes  are  to  be  found,  and  no  settling 
place  has  been  provided,  they  will  settle  wherever  the  queen 
may  happen  to  alight,  on  a  grape-vine,  on  weeds,  on  the 
ground,  on  the  corner  of  a  building,  etc. 

418.  It  will  inspire  the  inexperienced  Apiarist  with  more 
confidence,  to  remember  that  almost  all  the  bees  in  a  swarm 
are  in  a  veiy  peaceable  mood,  having  filled  themselves  with 


PRIMARY   SWARM.  219 

honey  before  leaving  the  parent-stock  (380).  Yet  there  are, 
in  nearly  eveiy  swarm^  a  few  bees  that  have  either  joined 
from  a  neighboring  hive,  or  have  not  filled  their  honey-sack 
completely  before  leaving.  These  bees  are  liable  to  get  angry, 
when  the  swarm  is  harvested.  So,  if  the  Apiarist  is  timid,  or 
suffers  severely  from  the  sting  of  a  bee,  he  should,  by  all 
means,  furnish  himself  with  the  protection  of  a  bee-veil 
(386).  The  use  of  a  smoker  (382),  is  also  advisable,  both 
in  preventing  the  -bees  from  stinging  and  in  helping  to  drive 
them  into  the  hive;  but  it  must  not  be  used  plentifully,  as  it 
might  cause  the  bees  to  abscond,  or  to  return  to  the  clustering 
spot. 

•419.  A  new  swarm  should  be  hived  as  soon  as  the  hees 
have  quietly  clustered  around  their  queen;  although  there  is  no 
necessity  for  the  headlong  haste  practiced  by  some,  which 
increases  their  liability  to  be  stung.  Those  who  show  so 
little  self-possession,  must  not  be  surprised  if  they  are  stung 
by  the  bees  of  other  hives;  which,  instead  of  being  gorged 
with  honey,  are  on  the  alert,  and  very  naturally  mistake  the 
object  of  such  excited  demonstrations.  The  fact  that  the 
bees  have  clustered,  makes  it  almost  certain  that,  unless  the 
weather  is  ver}''  hot,  or  they  are  exposed  to  the  burning  heat 
of  the  smi^  they  will  not  leave  for  at  least  one  or  two  hours. 
All  convenient  dispatch,  however,  should  be  used  in  hiving  a 
swarm,  lest  the  scouts  have  time  to  return,— w^hich  will  entice 
them  to  go, — or  lest  other  colonies  issue,  and  attempt  to  add 
them-selves  to  it. 

420.  Should  you  give  the  scouts  time  to  return,  you  would 
first  see  a  few  bees  flying  around  the  cluster.  Slowly  their 
number  would  increase,  till  the  Avhole  swarm  took  wing,  and 
it  would  be  almost  useless  to  try  to  stop  it  or  to  follow  it. 
When  a  swarm  thus  takes  flight,  it  knows  no  bounds.  Hedges, 
fences,  woods,  walls,  ditches,  rivers,  are  barriers  only  to  the 
breathless  and  disappointed  owner.  The  only  thing  that  we 
ever  have  knowTi  to  stop  a  departing  swarm  is  throwing  water 
among  them.    Flashing  the  sun^s  rays  on  them  by  the  use  of  a 


220  XATLKAL    SWARMIXCi. 

looking-glass  is  advised  by  some.     We  tried  it,  but   did  not 
succeed  in  a  single  instance. 

421.  As  a  matter  of  course,  we  suppose  that  the  Apia- 
rist has  an  empty  hive  in  readiness,  clean  and  cool.  Bees, 
when  they  swarm,  being  unnaturally  heated,  often  refuse  to 
enter  hives  that  have  been  standing  in  the  sun,  or  at  best  are 
slow  in  taking  possession  of  them.  The  temperature  of  the 
l)arent-stock,  at  the  moment  of  swarming,  rises  veiy  suddenly, 
and  many  bees  are  often  so  drenched  with  perspiration  that 
they  cannot  take  wing  to  join  the  emigrating  colony.  To  at- 
tempt to  make  swarming  bees  enter  a  heated  hive  in  a  blazing 
sun  is,  therefore,  as  irrational  as  it  would  be  to  force  a  pant- 
ing crowd  of  human  beings  into  the  suffocating  atmosphere  of 
a  close  garret.  If  the  process  of  hiving  cannot  be  conducted 
in  the  shade,  the  hive  should  be  covered  with  a  sheet  or  with 
leafy  boughs. 

422.  In  the  movable-frame  hive,  eveiy  good  piece  of 
Avorker-comb,  if  large  enough  to  be  attached  to  a  frame,  should 
be  used,  both  for  its  intrinsic  value  and  because  bees  are  so 
pleased  when  they  find  such  unexpected  treasure  in  a  hive, 
that  they  will  seldom  forsake  it.  A  new  swarm  often  takes 
possession  of  a  deserted  hive,  well  stored  with  comb;  whilst, 
if  dozens  of  empty  ones  stand  in  the  Apiaiy,  the  bees  very 
seldom  enter  them  of  their  own  accord. 

"The  bee-keepers  of  Greece  used  to  attract  the  swarms  into 
their  hives  by  rubbing  the  entrance  and  the  inside  of  their 
empty  hives  with  bees-wax  and  propolis.  But  such  practice  was 
often   the   cause  of   contests  between  neighbors,   for  their  bees 

did  not   inquire  about   the  ownership   of  the   hive   selected." 

(Delia  Rocca,  1790.) 

But  when  a  few  combs  only  are  given  to  a  swarm,  as  the 
queen  will  not  follow  the  builders  (229),  too  much  drone 
comb  (224)  will  be  built.  Then,  in  hiving  a  swarm,  the 
Apiarist  had  better  dispense  with  giving  anv,  unless  he  fills  the 
hive   (234). 

Drone-combs   (224)   should  nerrr  he  put  up  in  frames,  or 


PRIMARY    SWARM.  221 

the  bees  may  follow  the  pattern,  and  build  comb  suitable  only 
for  breedmg  a  horde  of  useless  consumers. 

423.  Frames  containing  worker  combs,  from  colonies  that 
have  died  in  the  previous  Winter  are  very  good,  if  the  comb 
is  diy  and  clean.  Combs  of  honey  will  do  if  the  swarm  is 
hived  on  a  propitious  day,  othei-wise  they  will  attract  robbers 
(664)  and  the  presence  of  the  latter  will  prevent  the  swarm 
from  entering  the  hive.  For  this  reason,  combs  containing 
honey  should  not  be  given  to  the  swarm  until  the  following 
evening. 

424.  In  the  absence  of  combs  or  comb-foundation  start- 
ers (674),  the  triangular  coqib-guide  will  greatly  help  to  se- 
cure straight  combs,  in  the  frames,  but  it  cannot  be  depended 
upon,  in  every  case.  Comb-foundation  in  full  sheets  or  in 
strips  is  so  far  superior,  and  is  now  in  such  general  use,  that 
the  triangular  comb-guide  (319,  324)  is  discarded  by  most 
Apiarists.  By  the  use  of  comb-foundation,  crooked  combs,— 
the  bane  of  the  apiary— are  no  longer  found,  and  eveiy  comb 
hangs  in  its  frame,  as  straight  as  a  board. 

425.  It  is  held  by  some  writers  that  the  giving  of  a  hive 
full  of  drawn  combs  to  a  natural  swarm  is  more  injurious 
than  beneficial,  because  the  bees  fill  these  combs  at  once  with 
honey;  the  queen  having  no  room  to  lay,  the  swarm  declines 
in  strength.  Mr.  W.  Z.  Hutchinson  in  his  most  excellent  book, 
"Advanced  Bee-culture,"  says:  "Occasionally  I  have  hived  a 
swarm  upon  drawm  combs,  but  the  loss  has  ahvays  been  so 
great  that  it  seems  folly  to  repeat  it."  Such  an  occurrence 
happens  in  a  veiy  good  season  with  small  hives.  During  a 
heavy  flow,  the  bees  can  fill  the  entire  hive-body  with  honey 
in  less  time  than  it  would  take  them  to  build  the  combs  and 
the  queen  is  thus  deprived  of  room  to  lay.  This  same  colony, 
if  hived  upon  empty  frames  would  harvest  just  enough  honey 
in  that  length  of  time  to  build  the  combs  and  keep  the  brood 
nourished.  The  profitable  saving  thus  turns  out  as  a  loss, 
smce  this  extra  amount  of  honey  is  in  the  way  of  the  queen. 
This  does  not  prove  the  uselessness  of  combs,  as  some  persons 


222  NATURAL    SWARM  INT.. 

would  iiiier,  but  on  the  contrary  it  evidences  the  fact  that  it 
costs  the  bees  a  great  deal  of  honey  to  produce  the  comb, 
since  they  can  save  enough  to  fill  the  combs  in  the  same  time 
that  it  would  take  them  to  build  those  combs.'  In  localities 
where  this  condition  proves  to  be  common,  it  is  best  to  use 
the  built  combs  only  in  making  artificial  (469)  increase,  or 
with  weak  swarms.  A  veiy  small  quantity  of  bees  with  a 
good  queen  and  built  combs  will  soon  make  a  powerful  col- 
ony. But  in  poor  honey  seasons,  when  it  is  difficult  for 
swarms  to  harvest  enough  to  build  their  combs,  a  hive  full  of 
combs  proves  a  gi'eat  boon  to  them^  even  if  the  swarm  is 
large. 

426.  It  is  veiy  important  that  the  frames  should  hang 
true  in  the  hive,  and  at  the  proper  distance  apart  (316).  If 
the  hive  has  to  be  removed,  they  should  be  previously  fastened 
in  their  places,  by  the  use  of  small  w^ire  nails  only  partly 
driven,  and  removed  later.  If,  however,  a  frame  spacer  is  used 
(fig.  76)  this  will  not  be  necessary.  The  cloth  (352)  and 
mat  (353)  should  be  carefully  placed  over  the  frames,  or  the 
swarm  would  build  and  raise  brood  in  the  upper  story,  in- 
tended only  for  surplus  honey. 

427.  When  the  hive  is  thus  prepared  and  placed  in  a  con- 
venient position,  the  entrance  should  be  opened  as  wide  as 
possible.  If  it  has  a  movable-bottom-board,  it  should  be  raised 
from  it  in  front  (344),  and  the  entrance-blocks  inserted  un- 
der its  edges,  so  as  to  leave  a  larger  passage  for  the  swarm, 
that  the  bees  may  get  in  as  soon  as  possible;  and  a  well- 
stretched  sheet,  or  coarse  cloth,  should  be  securely  fastened  to 
the  alighting-board,  to  keep  them  from  becoming  separated, 
or  soiled  by  dirt;  for,  if  separated,  they  are  a  long  time  in 
entering;  and  a  bee  covered  with  dust  or  dirt  is  verj^  apt  to 
perish.  Bees  are  much  obstructed  in  their  travel,  by  any  cor- 
ner, or  great  inequality  of  surface;  and  if  the  sheet  is  not 
smoothly  stretched,  they  are  often  so  confused,  that  it  takes 
them  a  long  time  to  find  the  entrance  to  the  hive. 

428.  If  the  bees  have  alighted  on  a  small  limb,  which  can 


PRIMARY   SWARM.  223 

be  cut  with  sharp  pruning-shears,  without  jarring  the  swarm, 
or  damaging  the  value  of  the  tree,  they  may  be  gently  carried 
on  it  to  the  hiving-sheet,  in  front  of  their  new  home.  If  they 
seem  at  all  reluctant  to  enter  it,  gently  scoop  up  a  few  of  them 
with  a  large  spoon,  or  a  leafy  twig,  or  even  with  the  fingers 
(72),  and  shake  them  close  to  its  entrance.  As  they  go  in 
with  fanning  wings,  they  will  raise  a  peculiar  note,  which 
communicates  to  their  companions  the  joyful  news  that  they 
have  found  a  home;  and  in  a  short  time  the  whole  swarm  will 
enter,  without  injury  to  a  single  bee. 

When  bees  are  once  shaken  dow^l  on  the  sheet,  they  are 
quite  unwilling  to  take  wing  again;  for,  being  loaded  with 
honey,  they  desire,  like  heavily-armed  troops,  to  march  slowly 
and  sedately  to  their  place  of  encampment. 

429.  AMien  they  alight  on  a  high  limb,  which  cannot  be 
reached,  or  when  the  limb  is  too  valuable  to  be  sacrificed,  the 
swarm  can  be  hived  by  using  a  light  box  or  swarm-sack,  at 

the  end  of  a  pole  of  proper  length. 
This  swarm-sack  (fig.  96)  is  made  of 
strong  muslin,  about  two  feet  deep, 
fastened  around  a  wire  hoop,  about 
one  foot  in  diameter,  and  is  similar 
to  a  butterfly  net.  A  piece  of  braid 
SWARM-SACK.  IS   scwcd    at   the   bottom,    inside   and 

^  ^^'  ^^'  outside,  to  help  in  emptying  it.   When 

the  sack  is  placed  under  the  swarm,  the  bees  are  suddenly 
shaken  into  it  by  a  single  tap  on  the  limb.  Hold  the  sack 
firmly,  as  the  sudden  weight  will  draw  it  down  in  a  most  un- 
expected manner.  To  prevent  the  bees  from  escaping,  hold 
the  handle  perpendicularly,  as  this  will  close  the  opening  of 
the  bag  instantly. 

430.  In  bringing  it  to  the  hive,  and  turning  it  inside  out, 
by  holding  the  braid  with  the  fingers,  some  care  must  be  exer- 
cised, as  this  unceremonious  imprisoning  of  the  bees  is  apt  to 
cause  some  to  be  angiy.     A  little  smoke  (382)  should  be  used, 


224  NATURAL     SWARMING. 

or  a  few  seconds  should  be  allowed  to  elapse  before  they  are 
-•ently  liberated  in  front  of  the  hive. 

431.  The  sack  is  preferable  to  a  box  or  a  basket,  as  the 
latter  do  not  close  readily,  and  a  number  of  the  bees  are  apt 
to  fly  back  to  the  clustering  spot,  befo-e  they  are  emptied  in 
front  of  their  intended  abode. 

If  this  happens,  the  process  of  hiving  must  be  repeated, 
unless  the  queen  has  been  secured,  when  they  will  quickly  form 
a  line  of  communication  with  those  on  the  sheet.  If  the  queen 
has  not  been  secured,  the  bees  will  either  refuse  to  enter  the 
hive,  or  will  speedily  come  out  and  take  wing,  to  join  her 
agam.  This  happens  oftenest  with  after-swarms,  whose  young 
queens,  instead  of  exhibiting  the  gravity  of  an  old  matron, 
r.ro  apt  to  be  frisking  in  the  air. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  a  swarm  will  not  enter  a 
hive  unless  the  queen  is  with  them.  If  some  start  for  it,  the 
others  will  speedily  follow,  all  seeming  to  take  it  for  granted 
(liat  the  queen  is  somewhere  among  them.  Even  after  they 
l)egin  to  disperse  in  search  of  her,  they  may  often  be  induced 
to  return,  by  pouring  out  a  fresh  lot  of  bees,  which,  by  enter- 
ing the  hive  with  ft;nning  wings,  cause  the  others  to  believe 
that  the  queen  is  coming  at  last. 

When  the  swarm  is  clustered  so  high  that  the  sack  cannot  be 
raised  to  it  on  a  pole,  it  may  be  carried  up  to  the  cluster,  and 
the  bee-keeper,  after  shaking  the  bees  into  it,  may  gently  lower 
it.  by  a  string,  to  an  assistant  below. 

432.  When  a  colnr.y  alijihts  en  ihe  trunk  of  a  tree,  or  on 
anything  from  which  the  bees  cannrt  easily  be  gathered  in  a 
basket,  or  in  the  sack,  fasten  a  leafy  bough,  or  a  comb  over 
them,  and  with  a  little  smoke,  compel  them  to  ascend  it.  If 
the  place  is  inaccessible,  they  will  enter  a  well-shaded  basket, 
inverted,  and  elevated  just  above  the  clustered  mass.  We  once 
hived  a  neighbor\s  swarm,  which  settled  in  a  thicket,  on  the 
inaccessible  body  of  a  tree,  by  throwing  water  upon  the  bees, 
so  as  to  compel  them  gradually  to  ascend  the  tree,  and  enter 
an  elevated  box.     If  proper  alighting  places  are  not  furnished. 


PRIMAKY   SWARM.  225 

the  trouble  of  hiving  a  swarm  will  often  be  greater  than  its 
value. 

433.  If  the  swarm  is  noticed,  when  it  begins  to  issue  from 
the  parent  hive,  the  practical  bee-keeper  often  harvests  it 
without  trouble,  by  catching  the  queen  (100).  Provided  with 
a  queen  cage  (536)  he  watches  for  her  exit,  and  as  she  comes 
out,  he  seizes  her  and  places  her  in  the  cage.  He  then  re- 
moves the  old  hive,  and  places  the  new  one,  ready  for  the 
swarm,  on  its  stand,  with  the  caged  queen  on  the  platform. 
The  swarm  may  alight,  but  as  soon  as  the  bees  notice  their 
loss,  they  will  return,  and  will  cluster  around  her;  and  the 
hiving  of  the  swarm  takes  but  a  few  minutes.  In  a  circum- 
stance of  this  kind,  it  is  well  to  return  the  parent  colony  to  its 
stand,  after  the  swarm  is  hived,  for,  if  entirely  removed,  it 
would  lose  all  the  bees  that  were  in  the  field,  when  the  swarm 
left,  and  would  be  too  much  weakened. 

434.  To  prevent  primary  swarms  from  escaping,  some 
bee-keepers  clip  one  of  the  wings  of  their  queens  previous  to 
the  swarming  season. 

Virgil  speaks  of  clipping  the  wings  of  queens,  to  prevent 
them  from  escaping  with  a  swarm.  Mr.  Langstroth  had  de- 
vised a  way  of  doing  this,  so  as  to  designate  the  age  of  the 
queens  .'—With  a  pair  of  scissors,  let  the  wings,  on  one  side, 
of  a  young  queen  be  carefully  cut  off;  when  the  hives  are  ex- 
amined next  year,  let  one  of  her  two  remaining  wings  be  re- 
moved, and  the  last  one  the  third  year. 

As  an  old  queen  leaves  the  hive  only  with  a  new  swarm 
the  loss  of  her  wings  in  no  way  interferes  with  her  usefulness 
or  the  attachment  of  the  bees.  If,  in  spite  of  her  inability  to 
fly,  she  is  bent  on  emigTating,  though  she  has  a  "will,"  she  can 
find  "no  way,"  but  helplessly  falls  to  the  ground,  instead  of 
gaily  mounting  into  the  air.  If  the  bees  find  her,  they  cluster 
around  her,  and  may  be  easily  secured  by  the  Apiarist;  if 
she  is  not  found,  they  return  to  the  parent-stock,  to  await 
the  maturity  of  the  j'Oung  queens. 

This  method  will  do,  provided  the  apiary  ground  is  bare, 


226  XATUKAL    SWAKMING. 

SO  that  the  queen  runs  no  risk  of  getting  lost  in  the  grass. 
We  abandoned  it,  after  having  tried  it,  for  several  years.  But 
some  very  good  Apiarists  hold  that  clipping  the  queens'  wings 
is  desirable.  Doctor  C.  C.  Miller,  one  of  America's  most  prac- 
tical and  successful  Apiarists,  in  his  "Forty  Years  Among  the 
Bees,"  already  mentioned  by  us,  says: 

''Although  nowadays  the  practice  of  clipping  has  become 
quite  general,  there  are  a  few  who  doubt  its  advisability.  I 
would  not  dispense  with  clipping  if  I  kept  only  one  apiary  and 
were  on  hand  all  the  time  and  with  out-apiaries  and  no  one 
to  watch  them  it  seems  a  necessity.  If  a  colony  swarms  with 
a  clipped  queen,  it  cannot  go  off.  True,  the  queen  may  pos- 
sibly get  lost,  but  it  is  better  to  lose  the  queen  than  to  lose 
both  bees  and  queen.  If  there  were  no  other  reason  for  it, 
T  should  want  my  queens  clipped  for  the  sake  of  keeping  a 
proper  record  of  them.  A  colony,  for  example,  distinguishes 
itself  by  storing  more  than  any  other  colony.  I  want  to  breed 
next  spring  from  the  queen  of  that  colony.  But  she  may  be 
superseded  in  the  fall  after  that  big  harvest,  and  if  she  is 
not  clipped  there  is  no  way  for  me  to  tell  in  the  following  sea- 
son whether  she  has  been  superseded  or  not.  Indeed  I  can 
hardly  see  how  it  is  possible  to  keep  proper  track  of  a  queen 
without  having  her  clipped." 

435.  Where  a  great  many  colonies  are  kept,  several 
swarms  may  issue  at  the  same  time,  and  unite  in  a  single  clus- 
ter. 

If  two  swarms  cluster  together,  they  may  be  advantageously 
kept  together,  if  abundant  room  for  storing  surplus  honey 
can  be  given  them.  Large  cjuantities  of  honey  are  generally 
obtained  from  such  colonies,  if  they  issue  early,  and  the  sea- 
son is  favorable. 

"When  more  than  two  swarms  have  clustered  together,  it  is 
better  to  divide  them.  Let  us  suppose  that  three  have  united. 
After  putting  three  hives  near  each  other,  so  as  to  form  a 
triangle,  the  sack  (  429  )  or  box,  in  which  the  bees  have  been 
captured,  is  shaken  on  a  cloth  just  between  the  three.  If  most 
of  the  bees  seem  to  go  into  the  same  hive,  this  should  be  re- 


PRIMARY   S\VAR3I.  227 

moved  a  little  farther.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  to  find 
the  queens,  and  to  direct  one  towards  each  hive.  But  if  only 
one  queen  is  seen,  it  is  better  to  cage  (  536  )  her  till  the  greater 
part  of  the  bees  have  entered.  Then,  as  soon  as  the  bees  of  one 
of  the  hives  show  signs  of  uneasiness,  and  seem  ready  to  join 
the  bees  in  the  others,  release  the  queen,  and  direct  her  towards 
this  queenless  hive  and  all  will  be  well." — (Hamet,  *'Cours 
d 'Apiculture. ") 

436.  If  two  queens  ha\'e  entered  the  same  hive,  they  can 
often  be  found  on  its  bottom-board,  each  in  a  ball  (538)  of 
angiy  bees,  strangers  to  them.  Open  the  ball,  and  give  one 
of  the  queens  to  the  queenless  hive,  if  the  bees  have  not  al- 
ready deserted  it.  When  queens  have  been  "balled"  by  mixed 
swarms,  it  is  well  to  keep  them  caged,  in  the  hive,  for  a  few 
hours,  or  till  the  bees  have  quieted.  The  quantity  of  bees  in 
each  hive  can  be  equalized,  by  shaking  a  few  from  the  strong- 
est in  front  of  the  weakest. 

437.  Dr.  Scudamore,  an  English  physician,  who  has  writ- 
ten a  tract  on  the  Formation  of  Artificial  Swarms,  says  that 
he  once  knew  as  "many  as  ten  swarms  go  forth  at  once,  and 
settle  and  mingle  together,  forming,  literally,  a  monster  meet- 
ing." There  are  instances  recorded  of  a  still  larger  number 
having  clustered  together.  A  venerable  clergyman  in  Western 
Massachusetts,  told  us  that  in  the  apiaiy  of  one  of  his  parish- 
ioners, five  swarms  once  clustered  together.  As  he  had  no 
hive  wiiich  would  hold  them,  they  were  put  into  a  large  box, 
roughly  nailed  together.  When  taken  up  in  the  Fall,  it  was 
e\ndent  that  the  five  swarms  had  lived  together  as  independent 
colonies.  Four  had  begnin  their  work,  each  near  a  corner  of 
the  box,  and  the  fifth  in  the  middle;  and  there  was  a  distinct 
interval  separating  the  works  of  the  different  colonies.  In 
Cotton's  "My  Bee  Book,"  is  a  cut  illustrating  a  similar  sepa- 
ration of  two  colonies  in  one  hive.  By  hiving,  in  a  large  box, 
sAvarms  which  have  settled  together,  and  leaving  them  undis- 
turbed till  the  following  morning,  they  would  sometimes  be 


228  NATURAL    SWARMING. 

found  ill  separate  clusters,  and  might  easily  be  put  into  dif- 
ferent hives. 

If  the  Apiarist  fears  that  another  swarm  will  issue,  to  unite 
with  the  one  lie  is  hiving,  he  may  cover  the  latter  from  the 
sight  of  other  swarms,  with  a  sheet. 

438.  If,  while  hiving  a  swarm,  he  wishes  to  secure  the 
queen,  the  bees  should  be  shaken  from  the  hiving-basket  or 
sack,  a  foot  or  more  from  the  hive^  when  a  quick  eye  will 
generally  see  her  as  she  passes  over  the  sheet.  If  the  bees 
are  reluctant  to  go  in,  a  few  must  be  directed  to  the  entrance, 
and  care  be  taken  to  brush  thein  back,  when  they  press  for- 
ward in  such  dense  masses  that  the  cjueeii  is  likely  to  enter 
unobserved.  An  experienced  eye  readily  detects  her  peculiar 
color  and  form  (100). 

It  is  interesting  to  witness  how  speedily  a  queen  passes 
into  the  hive,  as  soon  as  she  recognizes  the  joyful  note  (76) 
announcing  that  her  colony  has  found  a  home.  She  quickly 
follows  in  the  direction  of  the  moving  mass,  and  her  long 
legs  enable  her  easily  to  outstrip,  in  the  race  for  possession, 
all  who  attempt  to  follow  her.  Other  bees  linger  around  the 
entrance,  or  fly  into  the  air,  or  collect  in  listless  knots  on  the 
sheet;  but  a  fertile  mother,  with  an  air  of  conscious  import- 
ance, marches  straight  foi-ward,  and  looking  neither  to  the 
right  hand  nor  to  the  left,  glides  into  the  hive  with  the  same 
dispatchful  haste  that  characterizes  a  bee  returning  fully 
laden   from  the  nectar-bearing  fields. 

439.  Swarms  sometimes  come  off  when  no  suitable  hives 
are  in  readiness  to  receive  them.  In  such  an  emergency,  hive 
them  in  any  old  box,  cask,  or  measure,  and  place  them,  with 
suitable  protection  against  the  sun,  where  their  new  hive  is  to 
stand;  when  this  is  ready,  they  may,  by  a  quick,  jerking  mo- 
lion,  be  easily  shaken  out  before  it,  on  a  hiving-sheet. 

Persons  unaccustomed  to  bees  may  think  that  we  speak 
about  "scooping  them  up,"  and  "shaking  them  out,"  almost 
as  coolly  as  though  giving  directions  to  measure  so  many 
bushels   of  wheat;    experience   will    soon    convince   them   that 


rnniAKY  swarm.  229 

the  ease  with  which  they  may  l)e  managed    (72)   is  not  at  all 
exaggerated. 

440.  Bees  which  swarm  early  in  the  day  will  generally 
begin  to  range  the  tields  in  a  few  honrs  after  they  are  hived, 
or  even  in  a  few  minutes,  if  they  have  empty  comb;  and 
the  fewest  bees  will  be  lost  when  the  hive  is  removed  to  its 
permanent  stand,  as  soon  as  the  bees  have  entered  it.  If  it 
is  desirable,  for  any  reason,  to  remove  the  hive  before  all 
the  bees  have  g-one  in,  the  sheet,  on  which  the  bees  are  lying, 
may  be  so  folded  that  the  colony  can  be  easily  carried  to  their 
new  stand,  where  the  bees  may  enter  at  their  leisure. 

While  the  hive  should  be  set  so  as  to  ineluie  slightly  from 
rear  to  front  (327),  to  shed  the  rain,  there  ought  not  to  be 
the  least  pitch  from  side  to  side,  or  it  will  prevent  the  frames 
from  hanging  plumb,  and  compel  the  bees  to  build  crooked 
combs. 

441.  If  several  rainy  days,  or  a  dearth  of  honey,  should 
occur  immediately  after  the  hiving  of  bees,  it  is  well  to  feed 
(606)  them  a  little  to  keep  them  from  starving,  till  there  is 
honey  in  the  blossoms. 

442.  The  Apiarist  has  already  been  informed  of  the  im- 
poi'tance  of  securing  straight  vrorker  combs  for  his  hives 
(223),  To  a  stock-hive,  such  combs  are  like  cash  capital  to 
a  business  man ;  and  so  long  as  they  are  fit  for  use,  they 
should  never  be  destroyed. 

Mr.  S.  Wagner  had  a  colonj'  over  21  years  old,  whose  young 
bees  appeared  to  be  as  large  as  any  others  in  his  apiary.  Mr. 
J.  F.  Racine,  an  old  settler  of  Wallen,  Indiana,  lost  a  colony 
in  the  Winter  of  1884-5  which  he  had  had  ever  since  1855, 
Avilhout  changing  the  combs.  He  considered  it  one  of  the  best 
in  his  apiaiy. 

We  have  ourselves  kept  colonies  of  bees  without  changing 
any  but  the  veiy  blackest  combs,  for  thirty  years  or  more. 
As  long  as  a  queen  will  utilize  combs  by  laymg  eggs  in  them, 
they  may  be  considered  as  good  as  any. 

Those  who  have  plenty  of  good  worker-comb,  will  unques- 


230  NATURAL    SWARMING. 

Honably  tiud  it  to  their  advantage  to  use  it  in  the  place  of 
comb-foundation.  If  a  swann  is  small,  it  ought  to  be  con- 
fined, b}'  a  movable  partition  (349),  to  such  a  space  in  the 
hive  as  it  can  occupy  with  comb,  as  well  for  its  encouragement, 
as  to  economize  its  animal  heat.  Yarro,  who  flourished  before 
the  Christian  Era,  says  (Liber  III,  Cap.  xviii),  that  bees  be- 
eomo  tiispirited,  when  placed  in  hives  that  are  too  large. 


Primary  Swarm  with  a  Youxg  Queen. 

4:43.  AVe  have  already  stated  (157)  that  queens  die  of 
old  age.  when  about  four  years  old.  If  the  preparations  for 
queen  rearing  (489)  are  begun  during  the  swarming  season, 
from  tliis  cause,  or  by  her  death  through  accident,  or  becau.se 
she  has  been  removed  by  the  Apiarist,  it  veiy  often  happens 
that  bees  prevent  the  first  hatched  queen  from  destroying  her 
rivals  (112),  and  the  result  is  that  a  swarm  leaves  the  hive 
with  her.  These  primaiw  swarms  with  young  queens,  are  cast 
as  miexpectedh',  and  may  be  as  strong  as  those  that  are  ac- 
companied by  the  old  queen.  They  have  that  in  common  with 
.secondary  .swarms,  that  they  behave  like  them,  both  in  their 
exit  and  afterwards. 


Secondary  or  After-Swarms. 

444.  Having  described  the  method  commonly  pursued  for 
hiving  a  new  swarm,  we  return  to  the  parent-colony  from 
which  they  emigrated. 

From  the  immense  number  which  have  abandoned  it.  we 
.should  naturally  infer  that  it  must  be  nearly  depopulated.  To 
those  who  limited  the  fertility  of  the  queen  to  four  hundred 
eggs  a  day,  the  rapid  replenishing  of  a  hive,  after  swarm- 
ing, must  have  been  inexplicable;  but  to  those  who  have  seen 
her  lay  from  one  to  four  thousand  eggs  a  day,  it  is  no  mysteiy 
at  all    (40).     Enough  bees  remain  to  carrv  on  the  domestic 


S1':C0XDARV     S\VAK.M.S.  231 

operations  of  the  hive;  and  as  the  old  queen  departs  only 
when  there  is  a  teeming  population,  and  when  thousands  of 
young  are  daily  hatching,  and  tens  of  thousands  rapidly  ma- 
turing, the  hive,  in  a  short  time,  is  almost  as  populous  as  it 
was  before  swarming. 

Those  who  suppose  that  the  new  colony  consists  wholly  of 
young  bees,  forced  to  emigrate  by  the  older  ones,  if  they 
closely  examine  a  new  swarm,  will  find  that  while  some  have 
the  ragged  wings  of  age.  others  are  so  young  as  to  be  barely 
able  to  fly. 

After  the  tumult  of  swarming  is  over,  not  a  bee  that  did 
not  participate  in  it,  attempts  to  join  the  new  colony,  and 
not  one  that. did,  seeks  to  return.  What  deteraiines  some  to 
go,  and  others  to  stay,  we  have  no  certain  means  of  knowing. 
How  wonderful  must  be  the  impression  made  upon  an  insect, 
to  cause  it  in  a  few  minutes  so  completely  to  lose  its  strong 
affection  for  the  old  home,  that  when  established  in  a  hive 
only  a  few  feet  distant,  it  pays  not  the  slightest  attention  to 
is  former  abode  I 

445.  It  has  already  been  stated  that,  if  the  weather  is 
favorable,  the  old  queen  usually  leaves  near  the  time  that  the 
young  queens  are  sealed  over  to  be  changed  into  nymphs.  In 
about  a  week,  one  of  them  hatches;  and  the  question  must  be 
decided  whether  or  not,  any  more  colonies  shall  be  formed 
that  season.  If  the  hive  is  well  filled  with  bees,  and  the  sea- 
son is  in  all  respects  promising,  it  is  generally  decided  in  the 
affirmative;  although,  under  such  circumstances,  some  veiy 
strong  colonies  refuse  to  swarm  more  than  once. 

If  the  bees  of  the  parent-colony  decide  to  prevent  the  first 
hatched  queen  from  killing  the  others,  a  strong  guard  is  kept 
over  their  cells,  and  as  often  as  she  approaches  them  with 
murderous  intent,  she  is  bitten,  or  given  to  understand  by 
other  most  uncourtier-like  demonstrations,  that  even  a  queen 
cannot,  in  all  things,  do  just  as  she  pleases. 

446.  About  a  week  after  first  swarming,  should  the  Apia- 
rist place  his  ear  against  the  hive,  in  the  morning  or  evening, 


232  NATURAL    SWARM  I  KG. 

when  the  bees  are  still,  if  the  queens  are  "piping,"  he  will 
readily  recognize  their  peculiar  sounds  (115).  The  young 
queens  are  all  mature,  at  the  latest,  in  sixteen  days  from  the 
departure  of  the  first  swarm,  even  if  it  left  as  soon  as  the 
royal  cells  were  begun. 

The  second  swarm  usually  issues  on  the  first  or  second  day 
after  piping  is  heard ;  though  the  bees  sometimes  delay  coming 
out  until  the  fifth  day,  in  consequence  of  an  unfavorable  state 
of  the  weather.  Occasionally,  the  weather  is  so  very  unfavor- 
able that  they  permit  the  oldest  queen  to  kill  the  others,  and 
refuse  to  swarm  again.  This  is  a  rare  occurrence,  as  young 
queens  are  not  so  particular  about  the  weather  as  old  ones, 
and  sometimes  venture  out,  not  merely  when  it  is  cloudy,  but 
when  rain  is  falling.  On  this  account,  if  a  very  close  watch 
is  not  kept,  they  are  often  lost.  As  piping  ordinarily  com- 
mences about  a  week  after  first-swarming,  the  second  swarm 
usually  issues  eight  or  nine  days  after  the  first;  although  it 
has  been  known  to  issue  as  early  as  the  third,  and  as  late  as 
the  seventeenth;  but  such  cases  are  veiy  rare. 

447.  It  frequently  happens,  in  the  agitation  of  swarm- 
ing, that  the  usual  guard  over  the  queen-cells  is  withdrawn, 
and  several  hatch  at  the  same  time,  and  accompany  the  col- 
ony; in  which  case  the  bees  often  alight  in  two  or  more  sepa- 
rate clusters.  In  our  observing-hives,  we  have  repeatedly 
seen  yomig  queens  thrust  out  their  tongues  from  a  hole  in 
their  cell,  to  be  fed  by  the  bees.  If  allowed  to  issue  at  will, 
they  are  pale  and  weak,  like  other  young  bees,  and  for  some 
time  unable  to  fly;  but  if  confined  the  usual  time,  they  come 
forth  fully  colored,  and  ready  for  all  emergencies.  We  have 
seen  them  issue  in  this  state,  while  the  excitement  caused  by 
I'emoving  the  combs  from  a  hive  has  driven  the  guard  from 
their  cells. 

The  following  remarkable  instance  came  under  our  obser- 
vation, in  Matamoras,  Mexico :  A  second  swarm  deserting 
its  abode  the  second  day  after  being  hived,  settled  upon  a 
tree.     On  examining  the  abandoned  hive,  fii^e  young  queens 


SECONDARY    SWARMS.  233 

were  found  lying  dead  on  its  bottom-board.  The  swarm  was 
returned,  and,  the  next  morning,  two  more  dead  queens  were 
found.  As  the  colony  afterwards  prospered,  eight  queens,  at 
least,  must  have  left  the  parent-colony  in  a  single  swarm! 

Young  queens,  whose  ovaries  are  not  burdened  with  eggs, 
are  much  quicker  on  the  wing  than  old  ones,  and  frequently 
fly  much  farther  from  the  parent-stock  before  they  alight. 

The  bee-keej^ers  of  old,  who  were  not  acquainted  with  the 
habits  of  bees,  noticing  that  primaiy-swarms  were  more  pop- 
ulous tlian  afrer-swarms,  used  to  brimstone  (2*76)  the  old 
colony  w^hich  had  swarmed,  and  its  after-swarm, .  considering 
the  first  swarm  as  the  best  of  the  three;  but  this  apparent 
superiority  was  often  of  short  duration,  for  the  first  swarm 
is  nearly  always  accompanied  by  the  old  queen.  We  know 
better  now,  since  we  consider  the  age  of  the  queen  as  one  of 
the  qualities  of  a  colony. 

448.  After-swarms  are  much  more  prone  to  abscond  or 
leave,  after  hiving,  than  primary-swarms.  It  is  probably  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  the  young  queen  has  to  go  out  for  her 
bridal  trip  (121),  and  the  bees  sometimes  leave  with  her.  A 
comb  of  misealed  brood  (166)  given  them  will  usually  pre- 
vent this.    An  absconding  swarm  often  leaves  without  settling. 

449.  After  the  departure  of  the  second  swarm,  the  oldest 
remaining  queen  leaves  her  cell;  and  if  another  swarm  is  to 
come  forth,  piping  will  still  be  heard ;  and  so  before  the  issue 
of  each  swarm  after  the  first.  It  will  sometimes  be  heard  for 
a  short  time  after  the  issue  of  the  second  swarm,  even  when 
the  bees  do  not  intend  to  swarm  again.  The  third  swarm  usu- 
ally leaves  the  hive  on  the  second  or  third  day  after  the  sec- 
ond swarm,  and  the  others,  at  intervals  of  about  a  day.  We 
once  had  five  swarms  from  one  stock,  in  less  than  two  weeks. 
In  warm  latitudes,  more  than  twice  this  number  of  swarms 
have  been  known  to  issue,  in  one  season,  from  a  single  colony. 

After-swarms  seriously  reduce  the  strength  of  the  parent- 
stock;  since  by  the  time  they  issue,  nearly  all  the  brood  left 
by  the  old  queen  has  hatched,  and  no  more  eggs  can  be  laid 


234  NATURAL    SWARMING. 

until  all  swarming  is  over.  If,  after  swarming,  the  weather 
suddenly  becomes  chilly,  and  the  hive  is  thin,  or  the  Apiarist 
continues  the  ventilation  which  was  needed  only  for  a  crowded 
colony,  the  remaining  bees  being  unable  to  maintain  the  requi- 
site heat,  great  numbers  of  the  brood  may  perish. 

Prevention   of  Natural   Swarming. 

450.  The  prevention  of  natural  swarming,  in  the  present 
state  of  bee-keeping,  is  an  important  item,  for  several  rea- 
sons. 

1st,  Bee-keeping  has  so  spread  in  the  last  few  years,  that 
many  bee-keepers  are  possessors  of  as  many  colonies  as  they 
desire  to  keep.  Most  Apiarists,  especially  farmers,  keep  bees 
only  for  the  honey,  and  as  it  is  impossible  to  produce  both 
an  increase  of  stock,  and  a  large  yield  of  honey  in  average 
seasons,  they  prefer  the  production  of  honey  to  that  of 
swarms. 

:2nd,  Another  objection  to  natural  swarming  arises  from 
the  disheartening  fact,  that  bees  are  liable  to  swarm  so  often, 
as  to  destroy  the  value  of  both  the  parent-stock,  and  its  after- 
swarms.  Experienced  bee-keepers  obviate  this  difficulty  by 
making  one  good  colony  out  of  two  second  swarms,  and  re- 
turning to  the  parent-stock  all  swarms  after  the  second,  and 
even  this  if  the  season  is  far  advanced.  Such  operations  often 
consume  more  time  than  they  are  worth. 

Jd,  The  bees  may  be  located  in  a  town,  near  a  public  thor- 
oughfare where  people  pass  constantly,  and  accidents  may 
take  place;  or  perhaps  near  the  woods  where  the  swarm  would 
cluster  on  such  high  limbs  that  it  would  be  difficult  or  impos- 
sible to  hive  them. 

1th,  It  is  very  troublesome  to  have  to  watch  the  bees  for 
weeks,  or  to  have  them  swarm  at  unexpected  or  unwelcome 
times,  when  the  family  is  away,  or  at  dinner,  or  while  the 
owner  is  engaged  with  his  business,  for  many  bee-keepers  are 
also  lawyers,  doctors  or  merchants,  occupied  in  daily  labors. 


PREVENTION    OF    NATURAL    SWARMING.  235 

which  require  a  definite  part  of  their  time.  Tlie  farmer  may 
be  mterrupted  in  the  business  of  hay-making,  by  the  cry  that 
his  bees  are  swarming;  and  by  the  time  he  has  hived  them, 
perhaps  a  shower  comes  up,  and  his  hay  is  injured  more  than 
the  swarm  is  worth.  Thus  the  keeping  of  a  few  bees,  instead 
of  being  a  source  of  profit,  may  prove  an  expensive  hixui-y; 
while  in  a  large  apiary,  the  embarrassments  are  often  seri- 
ously increased.  If,  after  a  succession  of  days  unfavorable 
for  swarming,  the  weather  becomes  pleasant,  it  often  happens 
that  several  swarms  rise  at  once,  and  cluster  together;  and 
not  unfrequently,  in  the  noise  and  confusion,  other  swarms 
fly  off,  and  are  lost.  We  have  seen  the  bee-master,  under  such 
circumstances,  so  perplexed  and  exhausted  as  to  be  almost 
ready  to  wish  he  had  never  seen  a  bee. 

451.  Mr.  J.  F.  Racine,  of  Wallen,  Allen  Co.,  Indiana, 
had  505  natural  swarms  from  165  colonies  in  the  summer  of 
1883.  Sixty-one  swarms  came  out  on  the  3d  of  July.  We 
will  let  him  tell  the  story  in  his  own  way : 

"In  the  morning,  as  soon  as  the  watchword  had  been  given 
for  the  first  "Swarm,  there  was  no  rest.  Primary,  secondary^ 
and  after-swarms,  all  passed  under  the  same  limb  of  the  same 
tree.  The  bees  were  no  sooner  shaken  in  a  basket,  and  emptied 
in  front  of  a  hive,  than  there  was  another  cluster  gathered,  in 
the  same  spot.  Some  swarms  had  no  queen,  while  others  had  3, 
4,  and  even  5  of  them.  Some  were  young  queens,  some  were 
old  queens.  When  we  could  find  a  queen,  we  caged  her  (  53(5  ) 
to  preserve  her  from  being  balled  (  538  ).  The  sixty-one  swarms 
were  hived  in  20  hives,  and  surplus  cases  were  given  them  at 
once.  A  man,  who  had  come  with  5  hives  to  buy  swarms,  said 
that  he  had  never  seen  the  like,  neither  had  T,  although  I  have 
kept  bees  for  57  years.  And  the  best  of  it  is,  I  did  not  want 
any  swarms  at  all  that  season. ' ' 

452.  5th.  It  is  admitted,  by  all  progressive  people,  that 
man  can  achieve  a  great  deal  by  artificial  selection  and  culti- 
vation of  plants  and  animals-  The  same  selection  is  advisable 
in  the  reproduction  of  hie  honey-bee,  and  an  increase  from 


236  NATURAL    SWARMING. 

selected  colonies  or  selected  races,  cannot  always  be  had  by 
natural  swarming.  In  this,  artificial  swarming  is  much  bet- 
ter, and  gives  much  more  satisfactoiy  results  whenever  an  in- 
ciease  is  desirable. 

453.  O'tJi.  The  numerous  swarms  lost  every  year,  is  a 
strong  argument  against  natural  swarming. 

An  eminent  Apiarist  has  estimated  that,  taking  into  account 
all  who  keep  bees,  one-fourth  of  the  best  swarms  are  lost 
eveiy  season.  While  some  bee-keepers  seldom  lose  a  swarm, 
the  majority  suffer  serious  losses  by  the  flight  of  their  bees 
to  the  woods;  and  it  is  next  to  impossible,  even  for  the  most 
careful,  to  prevent  such  occuiTences,  if  their  bees  are  allowed 
io  swarm. 

Apiarists  wiil  then  recognize  that  it  is  vei*y  important  to 
follow  a  method,  which  will  nearly,  if  not  altogether,  pre- 
vent natural  swarming.  But  in  order  to  prevent  it,  we  must 
know  the  causes  of  it. 

454.  Natural  SAvarming  is  a  natural  impulse  in  bees.  Yet, 
it  can  be  prevented,  for  it  is  always  caused  by  uneasiness,  as 
we  will  show  in  the  next  paragraph,  ov  by  an  abnormal  con- 
dition of  the  colony.     It  is  caused : 

1st.  In  the  majority  of  instances,  by  the  want  of  room  in 
the  combs.  By  want  of  room,  we  do  not  mean  want  of  empty 
space  in  the  hive,  but  want  of  emptj^  comb  for  the  queen  to 
deposit  her  eggs,  or  for  the  workers  to  deposit  their  honey. 
So  long  as  bees  have  an  abundance  of  empty  space  below 
their  main  hive,  they  veiy  seldom  swarm;  but  if  it  is  on  the 
sides  of  their  hive,  or  above  them,  they  often  swarm  rather 
than  take  possession  of  it. 

This  happens,  not  only  in  the  Southern  latitudes,  where  the 
swarming  instinct  is  so  powerful,  but  even  in  our  Xorthern 
or  Middle  States.  This  fact  is  corroborated  by  Simmins, 
whose  non-swarming  system  is  based  on  the  idea  of  keeping 
"open  space  and  unfinished  combs  at  the  front,  or  adjoining 
the  entrance."  (Rottingdean,  England.  18,S6.)  Persons  who 
are  unacquainted  with  the  details  of  bee-keeping  have  no  idea 


PREVENTIOX    OF    NATURAL    SWARMING.  237 

how  suddenly  the  honey  harvest  comes,  and  how  rapidly  the 
combs  can  be  filled,  when  it  once  begins.  Strong  colonies 
which  were  almost  destitute,  just  at  the  opening  of  the  crop, 
owing  to  the  large  amount  of  brood  they  were  raismg,  have 
been  known  to  harvest  twenty  pounds,  and  more,  in  one  day. 
When  bees  are  thus  gathering  large  quantities  of  honey,  and 
the  combs  are  becoming  crowded,  so  that  the  cells,  from  which 
the  young  bees  hatch,  are  filled  with  honey  as  fast  as  they  are 
vacated,  they  feel  the  necessity  of  emigrating,  especially  as 
the  constant  hatching  Avorkers  add  daily  to  their  large  popu- 
lation. The  building  of  additional  combs,  by  a  part  of  the 
bees,  is  sometimes  insutficient  to  keep  them  from  making  prep- 
arations for  swarming,  as  it  does  not  give  employment  to  all. 
The  reader  must  remember  that  in  a  good  colon 3^,  at  this  sea- 
son, there  are  between  50,000  and  100,000  bees,  according  to 
the  laying  capacity  of  the  queen  and  the  size  of  the  breeding- 
room.  There  is  also  an  additional  increase  over  mortality  of 
perhaps  2,000  bees  daily.  In  spite  of  the  admirable  order  of 
these  w^onderful  little  insects,  there  cannot  help  be  more  or 
less  crowding,  miless  there  is  ample  room  in  the  combs. 

455.  If  some  of  the  bees  decide  that  they  are  too  crowded, 
queen-cells  are  raised  (104)  and  the  colony  gets  what  Apia- 
rists call  the  "swarming  fever:'  It  is  a  veiy  appropriate 
name,  indeed,  since  the  so-called  fever  is  cured  only  by  swarm- 
ing. In  some  extraordinary  seasons,  after  this  "swarming 
fevei*''  has  taken  possession  of  their  little  brains;  no  amount 
of  room  given,  even  by  dividing  (470)  will  prevent  them 
from  executing  their  purj^ose,  unless  the  weather  and  the 
honey  crop  become  unfavorable.  We  have  repeatedly,  in  such 
seasons,  divided  a  colony  into  several  nuclei  (520)  without 
avail,  each  nucleus  swarming  in  spite  of  its  Aveakness. 

456.  2d.  The  heat  of  the  Summer  sun,  which  alone  would 
not  cause  them  to  swarm,  hastens  their  preparations.  Avhen  the 
bees  are  disposed  to  emigrate. 

457.  3cL  The  hatching  of  a  great  number  of  drones  due 
to  an  excess  of  drone-comb   (224)   in  the  brood  chamber,  in 


238  NATURAL    SWARMING. 

Avliicli  the  queen  has  deposited  eggs,— is  also  an  incitation  to 
the  "swarming  fever.''  These  big,  burly,  noisy  fellows  help 
to  make  the  already  crowded  hive  quite  uncomfortable.  This 
is  why  a  great  many  bee-keepers  of  the  old  school  noticed 
tliat  hives  which  raise  the  most  drones  east  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  swarms.  But  they  incorrectly  concluded  that  the  drones 
were  beneficial. 

458.  4th.  An  improperly  ventilated  hive  (333),  or 
surplus  arrangement,  strongly  induces  natural  swarming.  We 
have  seen  ignorant  bee-keepers,  owners  of  box-hives,  wonder 
why  their  bees  swarmed  and  did  not  work  in  the  surplus  honey 
receptacle.  In  order  to  ventilate  the  honey  receptacle,  the 
bees  have  to  form  a  line  (363)  from  the  outside  of  the  hivt' 
through  the  thickly  covered  combs,  and  force  in  air  enough 
t«>  enable  them  to  breathe  and  live  there. 

Under  such  circumstances,  hordes  of  useless  consumers  often 
blacken,  for  months,  the  outside  of  the  hives,  to  the  great  loss 
of  their  disappointed  owners. 

459.  1st.  It  results  from  the  above  that  the  principal 
condition  for  the  prevention  of  natural  swarming  is,  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  empty  comb,  and  this  empty  comb  must  be 
given  in  an  easily  accessible  place  near  and  above  the  brood. 

The  giving  of  comb  foundation  (674)  instead  of  empty 
combs,  will  be  sufficient  if  the  crop  is  not  flowing  too  fast. 
But  in  a  veiy  good  season,  if  the  harvesting  workers  bring 
the  honey  faster  than  the  young  bees  can  stretch  the  founda- 
tion into  comb,  it  will  not  be  sufficient. 

460.  If  the  breeding  story  is  full  and  the  surplus  arrange- 
ment is  placed  above  with  a  wooden  division  or  honey-board 
(352)  between,  the  bees  will  often  consider  the  latter  as  too 
remote  from  their  breeding  room,  especially  if  the  holes  which 
connect  the  two  are  few,  and  ventilation  cannot  be  readily 
given  from  one  apartment  to  another. 

461.  The  giving  of  combs  in  a  place  of  easy  access,  must 
he  attended  to,  just  before  the  crop  begins,  or  the  bees  may 
make  preparations  which  would  render  all  later  enlargements 


tKEVEXTlOX     OF    NATURAL    SWARMING.  239 

of  the  hive  completely  useless,  as  far  as  prevention  of  swarm- 
ing is  concerned.  The  breeding  room  must  he  large  enough 
to  accommodate  the  most  prolific  queen   (155). 

46S.  2d.  The  hive  must  he  located  where  the  sun  will 
not  strike  it  directly  in  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day.  It  can 
easily  be  sheltered  artificially  with  a  roof,  if  there  is  no  shrub- 
bery around  it  (369). 

463.  3d.  The  drone-comh  must  be  carefully  removed,  in 
Spring",  as  far  as  possible,  and  replaced  by  worker-comb 
(675).  It  is  impossible  to  remove  every  cell  of  drone-comb, 
but  a  few  drones  will  not  hurt.  It  is  the  excess,  the  breeding 
of  thousands  of  drones  which  is  objectionable,  and  an  in- 
centive to  swarming.  The  removal  of  drone-comb  is  highly 
advisable  for  other  reasons   (512). 

464.  4th.  The  hive  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated,  so 
that  the  bees  will  find  themselves  comfortable  in  it. 

465.  This  system,  which  gives  the  smallest  possible  num- 
ber of  swarms,  and  the  largest  possible  amount  of  surplus- 
honey,  was  maugurated  by  us,  years  ago,  and  has  been 
adopted  on  both  continents.  Mr.  Cowan,  the  worthy  editor 
of  the  British  Bee-Journal,  says  of  it,  page  148,  April,  1886, 
"Hives  managed  in  this  way,  will  give  the  maximum  of  honey 
with  the  least  amount  of  labor." 

If  the  above  directions  are  followed,  the  natural  swarms 
will  not  exceed  three  to  five  per  cent.  These  swarms  will  be 
very  large— Mr.  DeLayens  once  had  a  swarm  weighing  11 V2 
lbs.  — and  after-swarms  will  be  scarce.  The  few  hives  that 
swarm  are  those  which,  having  old  queens,  attempt  to  replace 
them  during  the  swarming  season  (499),  or  those  whose 
queens  die  while  the  crop  is  abundant. 

In  the  first  case,  one  or  more  young  queens  being  raised  in 
the  hive,  it  often  happens  that  the  old  queen  tries  to  destroy 
them;  the  bees  prevent  her  (114),  and  SAvarming  is  the  re- 
sult. The  same  reason  may  cause  swarming  in  a  strong  col- 
ony, in  which  a  queen  has  been  introduced  by  the  Apiarist, 
during  a  good  yield  of  honey.     Perhaps  the  bees  accept  her 


240  XATl'llAL    SWARMING. 

''under  protest/'  and  soon  Ijegin  raisin*^-  queen-cells  to  replace 
lier,  but  the  abundant  honey  harvest  causes  them  to  change 
their  preparations,  and  they  swarm  with  this  introduced 
queen.  A  hive  which  has  been  made  queenless  during  the 
honey  crop,  may  swarm  for  the  same  reasons  as  soon  as  the 
young  queens  are  old  enough. 

H>l>.  The  prevention  of  natural  swarming,  when  comb- 
honey  is  raised  in  sections  (722),  is  not  so  successful,  ])e- 
cause  the  Apiarist  cannot  furnish  his  bees  with  empty  combs. 
But  veiy  good  results  can  be  obtained,  by  following  as  nearly 
as  possible  all  the  directions  above  given. 

467.  As  the  queen  cannot  get  through  an  opening  5-32 
of  an  inch  high— which  will  just  pass  a  loaded  worker,  if  the 
entrance  to  the  hive  be  contracted  to  this  dimension,  she  will 
not  be  able  to  leave  with  a  swarm. 

This  is  done  with  drone  or  queen-traps,  perforated  zinc, 
entrance-blocks,  and  other  fixtures    (191). 

This  method  of  preventing  swarming  requires  great  accu- 
i-acy  of  measui'ement,  for  a  veiy  trifling  deviation  from  the 
dimensions  given  will  either  shut  out  the  loaded  workers,  or 
let  out  the  queen.  It  should  be  used  only  to  imprison  old 
queens;  for  young  ones,  if  confined  to  the  hive,  cannot  be 
impregnated  (120).  These  fixtures,  if  firmly  fastened,  will 
exclude  mice  from  the  hive  in  the  "Winter.  When  used  to 
prevent  all  swarming,  it  will  be  necessary  to  adjust  them  a 
little  after  sunrise  and  remove  them  before  sunset,  to  take  out. 
or  allow  the  bees  to  carry  out  any  drones  that  have  died. 


Fig.    97. 

ENTRANCE     GUARD. 


We  have  seen  colonies  kill  their  queen,  and  raise  another, 
because  she  ha(i  tlius  been  unable  to  follow  the  swarm,  hence, 


PRE\ENTIOX    OF    NATURAL    SWARMING.  241 

these  appliances  will  do  only  in  small  apiaries,  where  bee- 
keepers can  examine  each  colony  daily;  and  even  there,  we 
would  not  advise  their  constant  use. 
Mr.  Langstroth  had  formerly  de- 
vised a  non-swanner  block,  with  a 
metallic  slide,  to  prevent  the  es- 
cape of  the  queen.    This  was  aban-  ^^^-  ^^• 

J  J  T  .,  J        j-l  NOX-SWARMER    BLOCK. 

doned,     because     it     annoyed     the 

,  ^     •    .      n        T        -,i  i-i  It  is  shown  attached  on 

bees   and    mteriered    with    ventila-        the  hive  in  Fig.  6i. 
tion,  as  all  such  arrangements  do. 

It  would  be  a  useful  implement  to  reduce  the  entrance  in 
winter. 

Mr.  C.  C.  Miller  succeeds  in  producing  large  crops,  and 
almost  entirely  preventing  the  issue  of  swarms,  but  the  manip- 
ulations to  which  he  resorts  are  so  frequent  as  to  make  the 
practice  unadvisable  for  the  average  bee-keeper.  The  spe- 
cialist who  wishes  to  raise  comb  honey  and  avoid  swarming 
had  best  secure  the  book  "Forty  Years  Among  the  Bees"  and 
study  it  carefully. 

468.  After-swarms  have  been  prevented  from  issuing,  by 
a  method  invented  by  Jas.  Heddon.  The  Heddon  method 
consists  in  placing  the  first  swarm  side  by  side  with  the  parent 
hive,  and  one  week  after  the  issue  of  the  swarm,  or  just  pre- 
vious to  the  expected  departure  of  the  second  swarm,  remov- 
ing the  parent  hive  to  a  new^  location,  thus  giving  all  its  old 
bees  to  the  first  swarm.  This  is  virtually  preventing  a  nat- 
ural issue  by  a  forced  issue,  but  making  the  first  swarm 
strong,  at  the  expense  of  the  mother  colony.  The  sole  objec- 
tion to  this  method  is  that  it  does  away  only  with  the  annoy-' 
ance  of  catching  the  swarm,  and  leaves  the  parent  colony 
much  weakened. 

468  his.  Some  Apiarists  who  raise  comb  honey  with  small 
hives,  such  as  the  eight-frame  Langstroth  or  dovetailed  hive, 
have  adopted  a  method  similar  to  the  one  just  mentioned  and 
much  more  satisfaetoiy.  The  new  swarm,  when  hived,  is  put 
on  the  stand  of  the  old  colony  and  this  one  is  removed  to  a 


242  NATURAL    SWARMING. 

new  spot.  The  supers  on  the  old  eohjny  are  also  removed 
and  given  to  the  swarm,  with  a  queen-excluder  (732)  be- 
tween the  brood  apartment  and  the  upper  stoiy.  This  virtu- 
ally gives  the  entire  working  force  and  the  partly  filled  honey 
cases  to  the  swarm,  which  henceforth  becomes  the  producing 
colony  from  which  surplus  may  be  expected.  The  old  colony 
thus  depleted  of  its  active  bees  and  stores,  barely  replenishes 
itself  for  the  end  of  the  season.  Sometimes  it  happens  that 
there  are  not  even  bees  enough  left  m  the  old  hive  to  take 
care  of  the  brood,  since  all  the  active  bees  have  gone  to  the 
old  stand.  In  such  a  case,  the  Apiarist  may  place  the  old 
colony  on  the  stand  of  a  third  hive  which  is  of  insufficient 
strength  either  to  produce  a  crop  of  honey  or  to  swann. 
The  active  bees  of  this  colony  are  thus  given  to  the  colony 
that  swarmed  and  the  third  colony  is  itself  removed  to  another 
spot. 

This  .method  usually  does  entirely  away  with  secondaiy 
swarming.  It  is  recommended  by  W.  Z.  Hutchinson,  editor 
of  the  Bee-Keeper's  Revieiu,  and  author  of  "Advanced  Bee- 
Culture." 

The  increase  of  colonies  may  be  kept  down  within  reason- 
able limits  by  returning  all  after-swarms  that  have  issued  from 
the  hives  to  the  parent  colonies.  The  swarm  is  hived  in  any 
any  kind  of  box  and  allowed  to  remain  twent>^-four  to  fortj^- 
eight  hours.  At  the  end  of  that  time  it  is  shaken  in  front  of 
the  hive  from  which  it  has  issued.  The  bees  willingly  re-enter 
their  former  home  and  rarely  issue  again.  This  method  of 
prevention  of  increase  is  sometimes  successful  even  with  pri- 
mary swarms,  if  the  conditions  are  other^vise  favorable  to 
their  comfort.  It  is  not  a  prevention  of  swarming,  but  a 
Drevention  of  increase  in  spite  of  natural  swarmiug. 


^■^■■^'y  . 


Plate  18. 


W.  Z.  HUTCHINSON. 

The  Late  Publisher  of  "T/ie  Bee-Keeper* s  Review,''' 

Author  of  ''The  Production  of  Comb-Honey.**  and  of  '•Advunrcd 

Bee-Culture.'" 

This  writer    is   mentioned   pages   97,   221,   242,    279,    280,   281,    282,    39C. 
442,   451,   511. 


CHAPTER  YII. 

Artificial  Swarming. 

469.  Every  practical  bee-keeper  is  aware  of  the  uncer- 
tainty of  natural  swarming-.  Under  no  circumstances  can  it 
be  confidently  relied  on.  While  some  colonies  swarm  repeat- 
edly, others,  apparentlj^  as  strong-  in  numbers,  and  rich  in 
stores,  refuse  to  swarm,  even  in  seasons  in  all  respects  highly 
propitious.  Such  colonies,  on  examination,  will  often  be 
found  to  have  taken  no  steps  for  raising  young  queens.  Be- 
sides, it  frequently  happens  that,  when  all  the  preparations 
have  been  made  for  swarming,  the  weather  proves  so  inclem- 
ent that  the  j'oung  queens  approach  maturity  before  the  old 
ones  can  leave,  and  are  all  destroyed.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, swarming,  for  that  season,  is  almost  certain  to  be 
prevented.  The  young  queens  are  also  sometimes  destroyed, 
because  of  some  sudden,  and  perhaps  only  temporary,  suspen- 
sion of  the  honey-harvest;  for  bees  seldom  colonize,  even  if 
all  their  jireparations  are  completed,  unless  the  blossoms  are 
yielding  an  abmidant  supply  of  honey. 

The  numerous  perplexities  pertaining  to  natural  swarming, 
have,  for  ages,  directed  the  attention  of  cultivators  to  the 
importance  of  devising  some  more  reliable  method  for  increas- 
ing the  number  of  their  colonies. 

Dr.  Scudamore  quotes  Columella  as  giving  directions  for 
making  artificial  swarms.  Although  he  taught  how  to  furnish 
a  queen  to  a  destitute  colony,  and  how  to  transfer  brood-comb, 
with  maturing  bees,  from  a  strong  stock  to  a  weak  one,  he 
does  not  appear  to  have  formed  entirely  new  colonies  by  any 
artificial  process.  His  treatise  on  bee-keeping  shows  not  only 
that  he  Avas  well  acquainted  with  previous  writers  on  the  sub- 

243 


244  AK'TIFICUL  SWAKMIXG. 

ject,  but  that  lie  was  also  a  successful  practical  Apiarist.  Its 
precepts,  with  but  few  exceptions,  ai'e  truly  admirable,  and 
prove  that  in  his  time  bee-keeping-,  with  the  masses,  must  have 
been  far  in  advance  of  what  it  was  fifty  years  ago. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  bar-hive  (282)  as  at  least  two 
hundred  years  old.  From  "A  Journey  into  Greece,  by  George 
Wheeler,  Esq.,"  made  in  1675-6,  it  appears  that  it  was,  at 
that  time,  in  common  use  there,  and,  probably,  even  then  an 
old  invention :  he  described  its  uses  in  forming  artificial 
swarms,  and  removing  spare  honey.  As  the  new  swarms  were 
made  by  dividing  the  combs  between  two  hives,  and  no  men- 
tion is  made  of  giving  the  queenless  one  a  royal  cell,  those  old 
observers  were  probably  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  they 
could  rear  one  from  the  worker-brood.  Huber  says:— "Mon- 
ticelli,  a  Neapolitan  Professor,  claims  that  the  plan  of  arti- 
ficial swarming  was  borrowed  from  Favignana,  and  that  the 
practice  is  so  ancient  that  even  the  Latin  names  are  pre- 
served by  the  mhabitants  in  their  procedure." 

470.  Huber,  after  his  splendid  discoveries  in  the  physi- 
ology of  the  bee,  felt  the  need  of  some  way  of  multiplying 
colonies,  more  reliable  than  that  of  natural  swarming.  Ho 
recommends  forming  artificial  swarms,  by  dividing  one  of  the 
hives,  and  adding  six  emptj-  frames  to  each  half. 

"Dividmg-hives"  (278-279)  of  various  kinds  have  been 
used  in  this  comitry.  The  principle  seems  to  have  all  the  ele- 
ments of  success;  but  it  was  ascertained  that,  however  modi- 
fied, such  hives  are  all  practically  worthless  for  purposes  of 
artificial  increase. 

It  is  one  of  the  laws  of  the  hive,  that  bees  which  have  no 
mature  queen,  seldom  build  any  cells  except  such  a^  are  de- 
signed merely  for  storing  honey,  and  are  too  large  for  the 
rearing  of  workers   (228). 

471.  Messrs.  Langstroth  and  Dzierzon  were  the  first  ob- 
servers who  had  noticed  the  bearing  of  this  remarkable  fact 
on  artificial  increase.  It  may,  at  first,  seem  unaccountable 
that  bees  should   build   only  comb   unfit   for  breeding,  when 


ITS    AXTigUITY. 


245 


24G  AKTIFICIAL  SWARMING. 

their  yoiinj?  queen  will  so  soon  require  worker-cells  for  her 
egg:s;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  at  such  times  they 
are  in  an  ^'ahnormaV  condition.  In  a  state  of  nature,  they 
seldom  swarm  until  their  hive  is  full  of  comb;  or  if  they  do, 
their  numbers  are  so  reduced  that  they  are  rarely  able  to  re- 
sume comb-buildinir,  until  the  young  queen  has  hatched. 

The  determination  of  bees  having  no  mature  queen,  to 
build  comb  designed  only  for  storing  honey,  and  unfit  for 
rearing  workers,  shows  veiy  clearly  the  folly  of  attempting 
to  multiply  colonies  by  dividing-hives,  unless  the  greater  part 
of  the  bees  are  given  to  the  queen,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  combs  to  the  queenless  half,  or  unless  the  Apiarist  has 
enough  combs  already  built  or  sheets  of  comb  foundation, 
on  hand,  to  fill  up  the  empty  space. 

AVhen  the  queenless  part  proceeds  to  sujDply  her  loss,  if  it 
has  bees  enough  to  build  new  comb,  it  will  build  such  as  is 
designed  only  for  storing  honey.  The  next  year,  if  this  hive 
is  divided,  one-half  will  contain  nearly  all  the  brood,  while 
the  other,  having  most  of  its  combs  fit  only  for  storing  honej', 
or  raising  drones,  will  be  a  complete  failure. 

So  uniformly  do  bees  with  an  unhatched  queen  build  coarse, 
or  drone-comb,  that  often  a  glance  at  the  combs  of  a  new 
colony,  will  show  either  that  it  is  queenless,  or  that,  haA^ng 
been  so,  it  has  just  reared  a  new  queen. 

472.  Some  Apiarists  have  attempted  to  multiply  their 
colonies,  by  removing,  when  thousands  of  its  inmates  are 
ranging  the  fields,  a  strong  stock  to  a  new  stand,  and  setting 
in  its  place  an  empty  hive,  with  a  frame  of  brood-comb,  suit- 
able for  raising  a  queen.  This  method  is  still  worse  than  the 
one  just  described.  One-half  of  the  dividing-hive  was  filled 
A\  ith  breeding  comb,  while  this  empty  hive  having  next  to  none, 
all  that  is  built  before  the  queen  hatches,  will  be  of  a  size  un- 
suitable for  rearing  workers.  The  queenless  part  of  the  di- 
vided hive  might  also  have  contained  a  young  queen  almost 
mature,  so  that  the  building  of  large  combs  would  have  quickly 
ceased;  for  it  is  not  always  necessaiy  that  a  queen  should  have 


VARIOUS    METHODS.  247 

commenced  laying  eggs  to  induce  licr  colony  to  build  worker- 
cells;  we  have  known  a  strong  swarm  with  a  virgin  queen, 
to  build  beautiful  worker-comb,  before  a  single  egg  was  de- 
posited in  the  cells. 

When  a  new  colony  is  formed  by  dividing  the  old  hive,  the 
queenless  jDart  has  thousands  of  cells  filled  with  brood  and 
eggs,  and  young  bees  will  be  hatching  for  at  least  three  weeks ; 
by  this  time  the  young  queen  will  ordinarily  be  laying  eggs, 
so  that  there  will  be  an  interval  of  not  more  than  three  weeks, 
during  which  the  colony  will  receive  no  accessions.  But  when 
a  new  swarm  is  formed,  in  the  way  above  described,  not  an 
egg  will  be  laid  for  nearly  three  weeks,  and  not  a  bee  hatched 
for  nearly  six.  During  all  this  time  the  colony  will  rapidly 
decrease. 

Every  observmg  bee-keeper  has  noticed  how  rapidly  even 
a  large  swarm  diminishes  in  number,  for  the  first  three  weeks 
after  it  has  been  hived.  So  great  is  the  mortality  of  bees  dur- 
ing the  height  of  the  working-season,  that  often,  in  less  than 
that  time,  it  does  not  contain  one-half  its  original  number. 

By  the  time  the  progenj'-  of  the  yomig  queen  begins  to  ma- 
ture, the  new  hive  will  have  so  few  bees  that  it  would  seldom 
be  of  any  value,  even  if  its  combs  were  of  the  best  construc- 
tion. 

473.  One  strong  forced  swarm ^  can  be  obtained  in  any 
style  of  hive,  including  box-hives,  by  the  driving  process 
(574  to  577)  as  follows:  ^Yhen  it  is  time  to  form  artificial 
colonies,  we  mean  a  few  days  before  swarming  time,  or  as 
soon  as  the  hives  are  about  full  of  bees,— drum  a  strong  stock 
—which  call  J.  — so  as  to  secure  all  its  bees. 

They  maj'  be  driven  either  into  a  forcing-box,  or  into  the 
upper  story  of  a  movable  frame  hive,  and  hived  like  a  new 
swarm,  when,  if  placed  on  their  old  stand,  they  will  work  as 
vigorously  as  a  natural  swarm.  If  they  were  driven,  at  first, 
into  a  hive  which  will  suit  the  Apiarist,  it  may  be  returned 
to  their  old  location,  without  disturbing  the  bees. 

If  any  bees  are   abroad  when  this  is  done,   thev  will   join 


248  ARTIFICIAL  SWARMIN).. 

this  jiew  colony.  Keiiiove  to  a  new  stand  in  tiie  apiary  a 
second  stock— which  call  S— and  put  A  in  its  place. 

Thousands  of  the  bees  that  belong  to  B,  as  they  return 
from  the  fields,  will  enter  A,  which  thus  secures  enough  to 
develop  the  brood,  and  rear  a  new  queen.  In  fact,  this  col- 
ony often  becomes  so  strong,  by  the  help  of  the  field  work- 
ers of  B,  as  well  as  through  its  own  constantly'  hatching  bees, 
that  there  is  some  danger  of  its  casting  off  a  swarm  when 
the  first  young  queen  hatches,  unless  again  divided  at  that 
time. 

474.  It  is  quite  amusing  to  observe  the  actions  of  the 
bees  that  return  to  their  old  stand,  when  their  homes  have 
been  exchanged  as  above. 

If  the  strange  hive  is  like  their  own  in  size  and  outward 
appearance,  they  go  in  as  though  all  was  right,  but  soon 
rush  out  in  violent  agitation,  imagming  that  by  some  unae- 
comi table  mistake,  they  have  entered  the  w^rong  place.  Tak- 
mg  wing  to  correct  their  blunder,  they  find,  to  their  increas- 
ing surprise,  that  they  had  directed  their  flight  to  the  proper 
spot;  again  they  enter,  and  again  they  tumble  out,  in  bewil- 
dered crowds,  until  at  length,  if  they  find  a  queen  or  the 
means  of  raismg  one,  they  make  up  their  mmds  that  if  the 
strange  hive  is  not  home,  it  looks  like  it,  stands  where  it  ought 
to  be,  and  is,  at  all  events,  the  only  home  they  are  likely  to 
get.  No  doubt  they  often  feel  that  a  very  hard  bargain  has 
been  imposed  upon  them,  but  they  are  generally  wise  enough 
to  make  the  best  of  it.  They  will  be  altogether  too  much  dis- 
concerted to  quarrel  with  any  bees  that  were  left  in  the  hive 
when  it  was  forced,  and  these  on  their  part  give  them  a  wel- 
come reception,  especially  if  they  come  in  with  a  hea^y  load. 

This  method  of  artificial  swarming  will  not  weaken  either 
of  the  mother-colonies.  If  B  had  been  first  forced,  and  then 
removed,  it  would  have  been  seriously  injured:  but  as  it  loses 
fewer  bees  than  if  it  had  swarmed,  and  retains  its  queen,  it 
will  soon  become  almost  as  powerful  as  before  it  was  re- 
moved. 


VARIOUS   MRTHODS.  249 

The  reader  will  notice  that  the  treatment  above  recommended 
for  the  making  of  artificial  swarms  produces  exactly  the  same 
result  as  the  method  mentioned  at  468  his  for  natural 
swarms.     It  secured  one  swarm  from  two  colonies. 

The  Apiarist,  by  treating  a  natural  swarm  as  he  has  been 
directed  to  treat  a  forced  one,  can  secure  an  increase  of  one 
colony  from  two;  and  of  all  the  methods  of  conducting  nat- 
ural swarming,  in  regions  where  rapid  increase  is  not  profit- 
able, this  is  the  best,  provided  the  colonies  do  not  stand  too 
close  together,  and  the  hives  used  in  the  process  are  somewhat 
similar  in  shape  and  color. 

475.  Whenever  the  hce-keeper  learns  how  to  handle  the 
movable- f rames  safely  he  must  dispense  with  the  forcing-box, 
and  make  his  swarms  by  lifting  out  the  frames  from  the  pa- 
rent-stock, and  shaking  the  bees  from  them,  by  a  quick  jerk- 
ing motion,  upon  a  sheet,  directly  in  front  of  the  new  hive. 

If  the  hive  contains  much  fresh  honey,  which  is  usually 
very  thin,  the  bees  must  be  brushed  off,  for  shakmg  them  off 
would  also  shake  out  a  large  amount  of  nectar  (249). 

As  soon  as  a  comb  is  deprived  of  its  bees,  it  should  be 
returned  to  the  parent-stock.  If  one  or  two  combs  contain- 
ing brood,  eggs,  and  stores,  are  given  to  the  forced  swarm, 
it  will  be  much  encouraged,  and  will  need  no  feeding  (605) 
if  the  weather  should  be  unfavorable.  In  removing  the 
frames,  the  bee-keeper  should  look  for  the  queen,  and  give 
the  comb  she  is  on,  to  the  forced  swarm,  without  shaking  off 
the  bees.  If  he  dees  not  see  her  on  the  combs,  he  wall  seldom 
after  a  little  practice,  fail  to  notice  her,  as  she  is  shaken  on 
the  sheet,  and  crawls  towards  the  new  hive.  The  queen  is 
seldom  left  on  a  frame  after  it  has  been  shaken  so  that  most 
of  the  bees  fall  off  (439). 

476.  The  more  combs  with  brood  are  taken  from  A,  the 
less  chance  it  will  have  to  send  forth  a  natural  .swarm  with  its 
first  hatched  queen. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  make  a  large  number  of  swarms,  and 
the  parent  colony  is  strong  in  hatching  bees,  only  a   few  of 


250  ARTIFICIAL  SWARMING. 

the  combs  need  be  shaken  in  front  of  the  new  hive  contain- 
ing the  queen,  and  the  parent  colony,  with  the  adhering  young 
bees,  may  be  set  in  a  new  place. 

By  this  method,  one  swarm  is  made  from  each  of  the  hives 
set  apart  for  increase,  and  although  the  colonies  thus  divided 
are  not  so  strong  as  when  one  swarm  is  made  from  two  hives; 
yet,  in  ordinary  localities  and  seasons,  they  become  strong 
enough  for  all  purposes,  long  before  the  season  is  over,  espe- 
cially if  young  queens  are  introduced  (533)  in  the  colonies 
made  queenless,  and  comb-foimdation  is  used  in  full  sheets  in 
the  frames   (674). 

This  method  of  making  artificial  swarms  may  be  varied  ad- 
infinitum.  It  is  currently  known  among  practical  Apiarists 
under  the  name  of  "shook-swarming." 

477.  If  the  mother-colony  has  not  been  supplied  with  a 
fertile  queen,  it  cannot  for  a  long  time  part  with  another 
swarm,  without  bemg  seriously  Aveakened. 

Second-swarming,  as  is  well  known,  often  very  much  in- 
jures the  parent-colony,  although  its  queens  are  rapidly  ma- 
turing; but  the  forced  mother-colony  may  have  to  start  them 
almost  from  the  egg.  By  giving  it  a  fertile  queen,  and  re- 
taining enough  adhering  bees  to  develop  the  brood,  another 
swarm  may  be  taken  away  in  ten  or  twelve  days  in  a  good 
season,  and  the  mother-colony  left  in  a  far  better  condition 
than  if  it  had  parted  with  two  natural  swarms.  In  favorable 
seasons  and  localities,  this  process  may  be  repeated  two  or 
three  times,  at  intervals  of  ten  days,  and  if  no  combs  are  re- 
moved, the  mother-colony  will  still  be  well  supplied  with 
brood  and  mature  bees.  Indeed,  the  judicious  removal  of 
bees,  at  proper  intervals,  often  leaves  it,  at  the  close  of  the 
Summer,  better  supplied  than  non-swarming  colonies  with  ma- 
turing brood;  the  latter  having— in  the  expressive  language 
of  an  old  writer— "waxed  over  fat." 

We  have  had  colonies  which,  after  parting  with  four  swarms 
in  the  way  above  described,  have  stored  their  hives  with  Fall 
honey,  besides  yielding  a  surplus  in  the  supers. 


VARIOUS   METHODS.  251 

This  method  of  artificial  inci-ease,  which  resembles  natural 
swarming',  in  not  taking  away  the  combs  of  the  mother-colony, 
is  not  only  superior  to  it,  in  leaving"  a  fertile  queen,  but  ob- 
viates almost  entirelj'  all  risk  of  after-swarming;  for  the 
forced  swarm,  containing  the  old  queen,  seldom  attempts  to 
send  forth  a  new  colony,  and  the  parent  hive,  in  which  the 
young  queen  is  placed,  is  too  destitute  of  field-workers  to 
swarm  soon.  The  young  queen  herself  is  equally  content  — 
except  in  veiy  warm  climates,  or  in  extraordinaiy  seasons- - 
to  stay  where  she  is  put.  Even  if  the  old  queen  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  mother-colony,  she  will  seldom  leave,  if  suffi- 
cient room  is  given  for  storing  surplus  honey;  and  it  makes 
no  difference — as  far  as  liability  of  swarming  is  concerned — 
where  the  young  one  is  put. 

478.  Artificial  increase  may  be  also  made,  by  simply 
giving  several  frames  of  hatching  bees  to  a  nucleus  (520) 
containing  a  fertile  queen,  and  placing  the  colony  thus  built 
up  on  the  stand  of  a  strong  hive,  removing  the  latter  to  a 
new  location. 

If,  from  some  cause,  the  parent-colony  could  not  be  moved, 
the  forced  swarm  might  be  made  to  adhere  to  a  new  location 
as  follows:  Secure  their  queen,  when  the  bees  are  shaken 
out  of  the  hive ;  and  when  they  show  that  they  miss  her,  con- 
fine them  to  their  hive,  until  their  agitation  has  reached  its 
height.  Then  open  the  hive,  and  as  the  bees  begin  to  take 
wing,  present  their  queen  to  them.  When  they  have  clustered 
around  her,  they  may  he  treated  like  a  natural  swarm.  To 
do  this  w4th  every  forced  swarm  would  take  too  much  time; 
but  it  would  answer  well  when  the  forced  SAvarm  is  to  be 
moved  a  short  distance. 

479.  If  no  queens  have  been  raised  previously  (514), 
by  taking  a  few  forced  swarms,  from  select  colonies  (513), 
nine  days  before  the  time  in  which  the  most  are  to  be  made, 
there  will  be  an  abundance  of  sealed  queens,  almost  mature, 
so  that  eveiy  parent-colony  may  have  one.  If  the  forced 
swarms   were   made   a   short   time   before   natural   swarming 


252  AHTIFICIAL  SWAKMlXr,. 

would  have  taken  place,  some  of  tne  })arent-colonies  will 
contain  a  number  of  maturing  queens,  which  may  be  removed, 
a  few  days  before  hatching,  and  given  to  such  as  have  started 
none.  But  it  is  far  better  to  rear  the  queens  first,  as  they  can 
be  bred  from  choice  stock  (513). 

However,  as  queen-i'earing,  by  tlie  Alley  or  Doolittle  meth- 
ods (528,  530),  has  now  become  a  special  business  in  the 
South,  Apiarists  may  find  it  profitable  to  buy  their  queens 
from  some  reliable  breeder  in  a  southern  state,  Avhere  they  can 
be  reared  more  cheaply,  early  in  the  season  (601). 

480.  A  nucleus  (520)  may  be  built  up  after  its  queen 
has  commenced  laj'ing,  by  helping  it  with  a  comb  of  brood 
and  young  bees,  from  a  full  colony,  adding,  at  proper  inter- 
vals, a  third,  and  a  fourth,  until  they  are  strong  enough  to 
take  care  of  themselves.  This  mode  of  increase  is  laborious, 
and  requires  skill  and  judgment;  for,  the  bee-keeper  should 
be  very  careful  never  to  give  a  weak  colony  more  brood  than 
its  bees  can  cover,  remembering  that,  should  the  temperature 
become  colder,  the  brood  might  be  chilled  and  perish. 

As  a  number  of  nuclei  are  to  be  simultaneously  strength- 
ened the  Apiarist  cannot  complete  his  artificial  processes  by 
a  single  operation,  and  must  always  be  on  hand,  or  incur  the 
risk  of  ending  the  season  with  a  number  of  starving  colonies. 
For  these  and  other  reasons,  we  nuicli  prefer  the  other  meth- 
ods, above  given,  dispensing  with  so  much  opening  of  hives 
and  handling  of  combs.  If,  however,  any  of  the  new  colonies 
are  weak  enough  to  need  it,  they  must  be  helped  to  combs 
from  stronger  ones. 

481.  Whatever  method  of  artipcial  increase  is  pursued  by 
the  Apiarist,  he  should  never  reduce  the  strength  of  his  mother- 
colonies,  so  as  seriously  to  cripple  the  reproductive  power  of 
their  queens.  This  principle  should  be  to  him  as  "the  law 
of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  which  altereth  not;"  for,  while  a 
queen,  with  an  abundance  of  worker-comb  and  bees,  may,  in 
a  single  season,  become  the  parent  of  a  number  of  prosper- 
ous families,  if  her  colony,  at   the  beginning  of  the  swarm- 


VARIOUS   METHODS.  253 

ing  season,  is  divided  into  three  or  four  parts,  not  one  of  them 
will  ordinarily  acquire  stores  enough  to  survive  the  Winter. 
The  practical  bee-keeper  should  remember  that  no  drone- 
comb  is  built  when  the  queen  is  with  the  builders  (229),  and 
that  the  iess  increase  he  takes,  from  the  colonies  on  which  he 
relies  for  surplus-honey,  the  better. 

482.  With  the  movable-frame  hive,  and  the  improved 
system,  the  Apiarist,  by  raising  his  queens  or  queen-eelis 
(514)  previously  {and  liiis  is  very  important)  can  take  the 
increase  that  he  wishes  to  make,  from  colonies  that  would 
have  produced  little,  if  an)/,  surplus,  and  preserve  his  best  col- 
onies for  honey  production.  Let  it  not  be  understood  by 
this,  that  we  advise  taking  the  increase  from  weak  colonies, 
in  every  apiary,  there  are  some  colonies,  which,  though  of 
fair  strength,  do  not  become  populous  in  time  to  harvest 
more  than  their  supply.  Such  colonies  can  furnish  good 
swarms,  with  but  little  help,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  greater 
number  of  their  bees  raised  during  the  harvest,  instead  of 
before  it,  are  too  young  to  go  to  the  field   (162). 

If  our  method  is  followed,  the  colonies,  which  have  been 
kept  for  honey  production,  can  furnish  help,  if  necessary, 
towards  the  end  of  the  season,  for  those  of  the  artificial 
swarms  that  need   it. 

To  the  prudent  Apiarist,  they  are  as  a  reserve  body  of 
select  troops  to  the  skillful  general,  a  timely  help,  in  an 
emergency. 

Remember  that  populous  colonies,  that  are  raising  queen- 
cells,  during  the  early  part  of  a  good  honey  harvest,  are 
strongly  inclined  to  swarm  when  the  young  queens  hatch 
(465). 

483.  The  colonies  that  are  raising  young  queens,  either 
from  worker-brood  or  from  queen-cells  given  them,  must  be 
well  supplied  with  honey,  must  have  enough  young  bees  to 
keep  the  brood  warm  and  to  take  care  of  it,  and  no  comb- 
building  to  do. 

One   artificial   swarm   made   at   the   opening   of  the   honey 


254  AHTIFiriAL  SWAKMIKG. 

harvest,  when  the  hive  is  lull  <•!'  Ijrood,  is  better  than  two 
swarms  made  at  its  close. 

Wlien  new  colonies  are  made  by  purchasing  queens  (601 ) 
with  nuclei  (520),  shipped  from  a  distance  (587),  they 
should  be  hived  on  as  many  combs  of  brood,  taken  from  other 
hives,  as  they  can  well  cover.  If  full  frames  of  foundation 
(074)  are  added,  from  time  to  time,  strong  colonies  may  be 
built  out  of  them,  quite  readily. 

If  the  colonies  are  gathering  much  honey,  when  artificial 
swarms  are  made,  but  little  smoke  (^82)  will  be  needed  in 
the  operations.  The  frequent  use  of  smoke  makes  the  queea 
leave  the  combs,  for  greater  securit}-.  This  often  causes  great 
delay  in  the  formation  of  artificial  swarms  by  removing  the 
frames,  and  in  operations  where  it  is  desirable  to  catch  the 
queen,  or  to  examine  her  upon  the  comb. 

48-1.  Artificial  alterations  of  all  kinds  are  most  successful 
iihen  bee- forage  is  abundant ;  when  it  is  scarce,  they  arc  quite 
precarious,  even  if  the  colonies  are  well  supplied  with  food. 

When  bees  are  not  busy  in  honey-gathering,  they  have 
leisure  to  ascertain  the  condition  of  weak  colonies,  which  are 
almost  certain  to  be  robbed,  if  they  are  incautiously  opened. 
AVhen  forage  is  scarce,  the  Apiarist  who  does  not  guard 
against  robbing  (004)  will  seriously  impair  the  value  of  his 
colonies,  and  entail  upon  himself  much  useless  and  vexatious 
labor.  Beware  of  demoralizing  bees,  by  tempting  them  to  rob 
one  another. 

485.  During  a  good  honey  flow,  bees  from  different  hives 
may  be  mixed  without  quarreling,  oAving  to  their  more  peace- 
able dis]^osition,  when  full  of  honey,  hence  all  manipulations 
become  much  easier.  But  at  other  times,  great  caution  is 
requisite  not  only  in  giving  a  hive  a  strange  queen,  but  in 
all  attempts  to  mix  bees  belonging  to  different  colonies.  Bees 
having  a  fertile  queen  will  often  quarrel  with  those  having 
an  unimpregnated  one. 

Members  of  different  colonies  recognize  their  hive-com- 
panions especially  by  the  sense  of  smell,  and  if  there  should 


VARIOUS   METHODS.  255 

be  a  thousand  hives  m  the  apiary,  any  one  will  readily  detect 
a  strange  bee;  just  as  each  mother  in  a  large  flock  of  sheep 
is  able,  bj^  the  same  sense,  in  the  darkest  night,  to  distinguish 
her  own  lamb  from  all  the  others.  Colonies  might  be  safely 
mingled,  bj^  sprinkling  them  with  sugar-water,  scented  with 
peppermint  or  any  other  strong  odor,  which  would  make  them 
all  smell  alike. 

Bees  also  recognize  strangers  by  their  actions,  even  when 
they  have  the  same  scent;  for  a  frightened  bee  curls  herself 
up  with  a  cowed  look,  which  unmistakably  jDroclaims  that 
she  is  conscious  of  being  an  intruder.  If,  therefore,  the  bees 
of  one  colony  are  left  on  their  oicn  stand,  and  the  others  are 
suddenly  introduced,  in  a  time  of  scarcity,  the  latter,  even 
when  both  colonies  have  the  same  smell,  are  often  so  fright- 
ened that  they  are  discovered  to  be  strangers,  and  are  instantly 
killed.  If,  however,  hoth  colonies  are  removed  to  a  new  stand, 
and  shaken  out  together  on  a  sheet,  they  will  peaceably  mingle, 
when  scented  alike.  We  find  substantially  the  same  thing  rec- 
ommended, in  1778,  by  Thomas  Wildman  (page  230  of  the 
3d  edition  of  his  valuable  work  on  Bees),  who  says,  that  bees 
will  "unite  while  in  fear  and  distress,  without  fighting,  as  they 
would  be  apt  to  do,  if  strange  bees  were  added  to  a  hive  in 
possession  of  its  honey." 

486.  The  forcing  of  a  swarm  ought  not  to  be  attempted 
when  the  weather  is  cool,  nor  after  dark.  Bees  are  always 
much  more  irascible  when  their  hives  are  disturbed  after  it 
is  dark,  and  as  they  cannot  see  where  to  fly,  they  will  alight 
on  the  person  of  the  bee-keeper,  who  is  almost  sure  to  be 
stung.  It  is  seldom  that  night  work  is  attempted  upon  bees, 
without  making  the  operator  repent  his  folly. 

487.  "We  would  strongly  dissuade  any  but  the  most  ex- 
perienced Apiarists,  from  attempting,  at  the  furthest,  to  do 
more  than  double  their  colonies  in  one  year.  It  would  take 
another  book  to  furnish  directions  for  rapid  multiplication, 
sufficiently  full  and  explicit  for  the  inexi:>erienced ;  and  even 
then,  most  who  should  undertake  it.  would  be  sure,  at  first, 


266  ARTIFICIAL  SWARMING. 

io  fail.  AN'itli  ten  strong  colonies  of  bees,  in  movable-comb 
iiives,  in  one  pj'opitious  season,  we  could  so  nicrease  them, 
in  a  favorable  location,  as  to  have,  on  the  approach  of  Winter, 
one  hundred  good  colonies;  but  we  should  expect  to  purchase 
queens,  foundation,  and  perhaps  hundreds  of  pounds  of 
honey,  devoting  much  of  our  time  to  their  management,  and 
bringing  to  the  Avork  the  experience  of  many  years,  and  the 
judgment  acquired  by  numerous  lamentable  failures. 

In  one  season,  being  called  from  home  after  our  colonies 
had  been  greatly  multiplied,  the  honey  harvest  was  suddenly 
cut  short  by  a  drought,  and  we  found,  on  our  return,  that 
most  of  our  stocks  were  ruined  by  starvation. 

The  time,  care,  skill,  and  food  required  in  our  uncertain 
climate  for  the  rapid  increase  of  colonies,  arc  so  great,  that 
not  one  bee-keeper  in  a  hundred*  can  make  it  profitable; 
while  most  who  attempt  it,  will  be  almost  sure,  at  the  close 
of  the  season,  to  find  themselves  in  possession  of  colonies 
which  have  been  managed  to  death. 

A  ce)tain  rather  than  a  rapid  multiplication  of  colonies,  is 
most  needed.  A  single  colony,  doubling  eveiy  year,  would, 
in  ten  years,  increase  to  1,024  colonies,  and  in  twenty  years 
to  over  a  million !  f   At  this  rate,  our  whole  country  might,  in 


*  Many  a  person  who  reads  this  will  probably  imagine  that  he  is  the 
one   in   a  hundred. 

+  The  following  calculation  of  possible  profits  from  bee-culture,  taken 
from  "Sydserff's  Treatise  on  Bees,"  published  in  England,  in  1792,  is  a 
perfect  gem  of  its  kind  : 

"Suppose  a  swarm  of  bees  at  the  first  to  cost  10s.  6d.,  and  neither 
them  nor  the  swarms  to  be  taken,  but  to  do  well,  and  swarm  once  every 
year" — bees  must  be  naughty,  indeed,  if  they  dare  to  do  otherwise! — 
"what  will  be  the  product  for  fourteen  years,  and  what  the  profit,  if 
each  hive   i.s   sold   at   10s.    6d.  ? 

Years.  Hives.  Profit^?. 

£  s.   d. 

1 1 0      0      0 

9  ...  2 1      1      " 

3.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.....  4 2      2      0 

4      S i      ■i      (^ 


14 8192 4300   16      0 

•N.    B. Deduct    10s.    fid.,    what   the   first   hive  cost,   and   the   remainder 


VARIOUS   METHODS.  ioT 

a  few  3'ears,  be  over-stocked  witli  bees;  and  even  an  increase 
of  one-third,  annually,  would  soon  give  us  enough. 

488.  All  the  methods  of  increase  above  given,  and  several 
others  of  less  importance,  were  described  by  Mr.  Langstroth 
years  ago.  He  never  hesitated  to  sacrifice  several  colonies, 
in  order  to  ascertain  a  single  fact;  and  it  would  require  a 
large  volume,  to  detail  his  various  experiments  on  the  single 
subject  of  artificial  swarming.  The  practical  bee-keeper,  how- 
ever, should  never  lose  sight  of  the  important  distinction 
between  an  apiary  managed  principally  for  purposes  of 
observation  and  discovery,  and  one  conducted  exclusively  with 
reference  to  pecuniary  profit.  Any  bee-keeper  can  easily 
experiment  with  movable-frame  hives;  but  he  should  do  it,  at 
first,  only  on  a  small  scale,  and  if  pecuniary  profit  is  his 
object,  should  follow  our  directions,  until  he  is  sure  that  he 
has  discovered  others  which  are  better.  These  cautions  are 
given  to  prevent  serious  Idsses  in  using  hives  which,  by  facili- 
tating all  manner  of  experiments,  may  tempt  the  inexperienced 
into  rash  and  unprofitable  courses.  Beginners,  especially, 
should  follow  the  directions  here  given  as  closely  as  possible; 
for,  although  they  may  doubtless  be  modified  and  improved,  it 
can  only  be  done  by  those  experienced  in  managing  bees. 

Let  us  not  be  understood  as  wishing  to  intimate  that  per- 
fection has  been  so  nearly  attained,  that  no  more  important 
discoveries  remain  to  be  made.  On  the  contrary,  we  believe 
that  apiculture  is  a  growing  science.  Those  who  have  time 
and  means  should  experiment  on  a  large  scale  with  the  mov- 
able-comb hives;  and  we  hope  that  every  intelligent  bee-keeper 


will  be  clear  profit ;  supposing  the  second  swarms  to  pay  for  hives, 
labor,  etc."  The  modesty  with  which  this  writer,  who  seems  to  have 
had  as  much  faith  in  his  bees  as  in  the  doctrine  that  "figures  cannot 
lie,"  closes  his  calculation  at  the  end  of  fourteen  years,  is  truly  refresh- 
ing. No  bee-keeper,  on  such  a  royal  road  to  wealth,  could  ever  find  it  in 
his  heart  to  stop  under  twenty-one  years,  by  which  time,  probably,  he 
would  be  willing  to  close  his  bee-business,  by  selling  it  for  over  two  and 
three-quarter  millions  of  dollars !  The  attention  of  all  venders  of  hum- 
bug bee-hives  is  respectfully  invited  to  this  antique  specimen  of  the  art 
of  puffing. 


2.j8  AKTIFICIAL  SWARMING. 

\\lio  uses  them,  will  experiment,  at  least,  on  a  small  scale.  In 
this  way,  we  may  hope  that  those  points  in  the  natural  history 
of  the  bee  still  involved  in  doubt,  will,  ere  long,  be  satisfac- 
torily explained. 

There  is  a  large  class  of  bee-keepers— not  %ee-masters"— 
who  desire  a  hive  which  will  give  them,  however  ignorant  or 
careless,  a  large  yield  of  honey  from  their  bees.  They  are 
easily  captivated  by  the  shallowest  devices,  and  spend  their 
money  and  destroy  their  bees,  to  fill  the  purses  of  unprincipled 
men.  There  never  will  be  a  "royal  road"  to  profitable  bee- 
keeping. Like  all  other  branches  of  rural  economy,  it  de- 
mands care  and  experience ;  and  those  who  are  conscious  of  a 
strong  disposition  to  procrastinate  and  neglect,  will  do  well 
to  let  bees  alone,  unless  they  hope,  by  the  study  of  their  sys- 
tematic industiy,  to  reform  evil  habits  which  are  well  nigh 
incurable. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

QuEEX    Rearing. 

489.  ^\e  have  shown  (109)  that  when  a  colony  is  de- 
prived of  its  queen,  the  bees  soon  laise  another,  if  they  have 
worker  eggs  or  young  larva?. 

In  general,  tliey  select,  first,  some  of  the  oldest  among  those 
whose  milky  "pap"  has  not  yet  been  changed  for  coarser  food 
(107).  Such  a  selection  is  wise,  for  the  older  the  larva  is, 
the  sooner  the  colony  will  recover  a  queen. 

490.  But  some  Apiarists  fear  that  the  bees  will  secure 
poorer  queens,  if  they  use  larvae,  for  they  suppose  that  the 
food  given  to  these  during  the  first  three  days,  may  be  dif- 
ferent from  tlie  food  given  to  the  queen-larvae,  although  it 
looks  the  same,  and  for  this  reason,  they  prefer  to  raise  their 
queens  from  the  egg. 

491.  A  learned  bee-keeper,  of  Switzerland,  Mr.  De  Planta, 
has  made  comparative  chemical  experiments,  on  the  milky 
food  which  is  first  given  to  the  larvae  of  drones,  queens,  and 
workers,  and  has  ascertained  that  this  food  is  composed  of  the 
same  substances  for  all,  albumen,  fat,  sugar,  and  water,  and 
that  the  only  difference  is  in  the  proportions  of  these  sub- 
stances. Yet  he  concludes  that  these  variations  are  but  acces- 
sory, and  not  premeditated  by  the  bees. 

We  think  that  these  conclusions  are  right,  for  Mr.  De 
Planta,  to  get  a  sufficient  quantity  of  this  food,  had  to  take 
it  from  different  hives,  and  at  different  seasons  of  the  year; 
and  as  this  milky  food  is  apparently  the  product  of  glands 
(64),  as  is  the  milk  of  our  cows,  the  proportions  of  sub- 
stances in  the  "milk"  of  bees,  may  vary,  as  they  do  in  the 
milk  of  cows,  which  contains  more  or  less  caseine,  fat,  sugar, 
or  water,  according  to  the  race,  the  age,  and  the  food  eaten. 

259 


260  (/lEEX    REARING, 

492.  Other  bee-keepers  suppose  tliat  the  ne\vly-hatche«l 
larvae,  intended  by  the  bees  to  be  raised  as  queens,  are  more 
plentifully  fed  from  the  first,  than  worker-larva?.  But  we 
have  always  noticed,  that,  except  during'  a  scarcity,  the  laHer 
have  as  much  of  this  pap  as  they  can  eat,  durinix  the  first 
three  days,  since  they  float  on  the  milky  food  (166).  The 
wise  bee-keeper  can  ward  against  the  i-eanng  of  poor  queens, 
by  feeding  his  bees  abundantly,  if  necessary,  a  few  days  in 
advance,  and  during  the  queen-breeding. 

493.  Lastly,  some  bee-keepers  think  that  bees  sometimes 
use  larvas  more  than  three  days  old,  and  which  consequently, 
have  already  received  coarser  food.  One  of  our  leaders  in 
bee-culture  writes  that  one  of  his  colonies  must  have  used 
a  larva  four  and  one-half  days  old,  since  this  colony  hatched 
a  queen  in  eight  and  one-half  days,  instead  of  about  ten,  as 
usually  (110).  (Cook's  Guide.)  But  we  cannot  admit  that 
the  nurses  were  guilty  of  such  blunder,  especially  since  they 
would  have  had  the  trouble  of  replacing  with  better  food, 
the  coarse  pap  already  given.  Most  likely,  some  already  con- 
structed queen-cell  had  passed  unnoticed.  Every  one  of  us, 
old  bee-keepers,  has  made  siniilai*  errors,  some  queen  cells 
being  deceptive   (519). 

494.  The  worker-larvae  are  fed  with  milky  food  for  three 
days,  and  with  coarse  food  for  the  three  following  days. 
Not  only  does  this  coarse  food  change  their  organism,  but 
it  retards  their  growth,  since  the  queens  are  mature  in  six- 
teen days,  from  the  time  that  the  egg  is  laid  (19'?),  while 
the  workers  do  not  hatch  before  twenty-one  days,  on  average. 
Thus  the  three  days  of  coarse  food  have  prolonged  the  growth 
five  days,  or  in  other  words,  each  day  of  coarse  feeding  has 
delayed  the  maturity  forty  hours.  Therefore,  if  we  suppose 
that  bees  could,  and  would  use,  larvcTe  four  and  one-half  days 
old,  queens  thus  produced  would  hatch  two  and  one-half  days 
later  than  those  raised  from  larvae  three  days  old.  They 
v/ouid  consequently  hatch  in  eleven  and  one-half  days  instead 
of  ten  as  usual. 


QUEEN    REARIXG.  2f)l 

495.  If  some  Apiarists  have  noticed  that  their  best  queens 
were  reared  during  the  swarming  fever  (455),  it  is  because 
the  colonies  are  then  in  the  best  conditions  to  produce  healthy 
queens.  They  have  pollen  and  honey  in  abundance;  as  they 
are  numerous,  they  keep  the  combs  very  warm ;  and,  in  addi- 
tion, they  have  a  large  number  of  young  bees,  or  nurses,  to 
take  care  of  the  larvas. 

496.  The  following  accidental  experiment  has  proved  to 
us  that  most  of  the  old  wx)rkers  are  unable  to  act  as  nurses. 
Years  ago,  one  of  our  neighbors  moved  three  colonies  of 
bees  about  half  a  mile,  in  the  Summer,  without  taking  proper 
precautions;  we  were  informed  the  next  day,  that  quite  a 
number  of  the  oldest  bees  had  returned,  and  had  clustered 
under  an  old  table.  We  brought  a  hive  there,  with  a  comb 
containing  eggs  and  young  larvae.  They  took  possession  of  it, 
but  neglected  to  raise  a  queen,  and  soon  dwindled  aw^ay. 

497.  By  placing  the  colonies,  intended  to  raise  queens, 
in  the  same  condition  as  to  food,  heat,  and  nursing,  as  during 
the  swarming  fever,  w^e  will  raise  as  good  queens  as  are  then 
raised.  If,  to  these  conditions,  we  add  the  selection  of  brood, 
from  our  best  queens,  w^e  will  greatly  improve  the  quality  of 
our  stock. 

For  many  years,  we  have  used  all  the  precautions  described 
above,  and,  although  our  queens  have  never  been  reared  from 
the  egg,  they  are  veiy  prolific  and  long-lived.  Using  hives 
with  ten  or  eleven  large  frames,  we  are  enabled  to  ascertain, 
beyond  doubt,  the  prolificness  of  our  queens.  Our  preventing 
swarming  (459)  enables  us  also  to  reckon  their  longevity. 

498.  The  interposition  of  the  Apiarist,  in  queen-rearing, 
may  be  necessary 

1st.  To  supply  the  loss  of  a  queen  in  a  colony  that  has 
r.ot  the  means  of  raising  another. 

2d.  To  breed  a  superior  race  of  bees,  or  improve  the  pres- 
ent stock. 

3d.     To'  provide  for  the  artificial  increase  of  colonies. 


2(V2  (VlEEN    HEAKINCJ. 

We  will  study  the  leariiiir  of  queens,  in  view  of  these 
requirements. 

Loss    OF    THE    QUEEX. 

499.  That  the  queen-bee  is  often  lost,  and  thqt  her  colony 
will  be  mined  unless  such  a  calamity  is  seasonably  remedied, 
ought  to  be  familiar  facts  to  eveiy  bee-keejjer. 

Queens  sometimes  die  of  disease,  or  old  age,  when  there  is 
no  brood  to  supply  their  loss.  Few,  however,  perish  under 
such  circumstances;  for,  either  the  bees  build  royal  ceils, 
aware  of  their  approaching  end,  or  they  die  so  suddenly  as 
to  leave  young  brood  behind  them.  Queens  are  not  only  much 
longer-lived  (157)  than  the  workers,  but  are  usually  the  last 
to  perish  in  any  fatal  casualty.  As  many  die  of  old  age,  if- 
their  death  does  not  occur  under  favorable  circumstances,  it 
would  cause,  yearlj-,  the  loss  of  a  vei-j'  large  number  of  col- 
onies. As  they  seldom  die  when  their  strength  is  not  severely 
taxed  in  breeding,  drones  are  usually  on  hand  to  impregnate 
their  successors. 

500.  Young  queens  are  sometimes  bom  with  wings  so 
imperfect  that  they  cannot  fly;  and  they  may  be  so  injured 
in  their  contests  with  each  other,  or  by  the  rude  treatment 
they  receive  when  driven  from  the  royal-cells,  that  they  can- 
not leave  the  hive  for  impregnation   (123). 

501.  More  querns,  whose  loss  cannot  he  supplied  hij  the 
bees,  perish  when  they  leave  the  hive  to  meet  the  drones,  than 
in  all  oilier  waijs.  After  the  departure  of  the  first  swarm,  the 
mother-colony  and  all  the  after-swarms  have  young  queens 
which  must  leave  the  hive  for  impreg-nation ;  their  larger  size 
and  slower  flight  make  them  a  more  tempting  prey  to  birds, 
while  others  are  dashed,  by  sudden  gusts  of  wind,  against 
some  hard  object,  or  blown  into  the  water;  for,  with  all  their 
queenlj'  dignity,  they  are  not  exempt  from  mishaps  common 
to  the  humblest  of  their  race. 

502.  In  spite  of  their  caution  to  mark  the  position  and 
appearance  of  their  habitation,  the  young   queens  frequently 


LOSS   OF   THE   gUEEX.  263 

make  a  fatal  mlntake,  and  are  destroyed,  when  attemjjUny  lo 
enter  the  wrong  hive. 

This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  ignorant  bee-keepers,  with 
forlorn  and  rickety  hives,  no  two  of  which  look  just  alike, 
are  sometimes  more  successful  than  those  whose  hives  are  of 
the  best  construction.  The  former— unless  their  hives  are 
excessively  crowded— lose  but  few  queens,  while  the  latter  lose 
them  in  almost  exact  proportion  to  the  taste  and  skill  which 
induced  them  to  make  their  hives  of  uniform  size,  shape  and 
color  (356). 

503.  We  first  learned  the  full  extent  of  the  danger  of 
crowded  apiaries,  in  the  Summer  of  1854.  To  protect  our 
hives  agamst  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  they  were  ranged, 
side  by  side,  over  a  trench,  so  that,  through  ventilators  in 
their  bottom-boards,  they  might  receive,  in  Summer,  a  cooler, 
and  in  Winter,  a  much  warmer  air,  than  the  external  atmos- 
phere. By  this  arrangement— which  failed  entirely  to  answer 
its  design— many  of  our  colonies  became  queenless,  and  Ave 
soon  ascertained  under  what  circumstances  young  queens  arc 
ordinarily  lost. 

From  the  great  miiformity  of  the  hives  in  size,  shape, 
color,  and  height,  it  was  next  to  impossible  for  a  young  queen 
to  be  sure  of  returning  to  her  hive.  The  difficulty  was  in- 
creased, from  the  fact  that  the  ground  before  the  trench  was 
free  from  bushes  or  trees,  and  no  hive— except  the  two  end 
ones,  which  did  not  lose  their  queens — could  have  its  location 
remembered,  from  its  relative  joosition  to  some  external  object. 
Most  of  the  hives  thus  placed,  which  had  young  queens,  be- 
came queenless,  although  supplied  with  other  queens,  again 
and  again;  and  many,  even  of  the  workers,  were  constant]}^ 
entei'ing  hives  adjoining  their  own. 

504.  If  a  traveler  should  be  carried,  in  a  dark  night,  to 
a  hotel  in  a  strange  city,  and  on  rising  in  the  morning,  should 
find  the  streets  filled  with  buildings  precisely  like  it,  he  would 
be  able  to  return  to  his  proper  place,  only  by  previously 
ascertaining  its  number,  or  by  counting  the  houses  between  it 
and  the  corner.     Such  a  numbering  faculty,  however,  was  not 


2i>4  «/LEEX    KEARlN(i. 

yiven  lu  tJie  queeii-bee;  iur  who,  in  a  state  of  nature,  ever 
saw  a  (iozen  or  more  hollow  trees  or  other  places  frequented 
by  bees,  standing  close  together,  i)recisely  alike  in  size,  shape, 
and  color,  with  their  entrances  all  facing  the  same  way,  and 
at  exactly  the  same  height  from  the  ground? 

On  describing  to  a  friend  our  observations  on  the  loss  uf 
queens,  he  told  us  that  in  the  management  of  his  hens,  he 
had  fallen  into  a  somewhat  similar  mistake.  To  economize 
room,  and  to  give  easier  access  to  his  setting  hens,  he  had 
partitioned  a  long  box  into  a  dozen  or  more  separate  apart- 
ments. The  hens,  in  returning  to  their  nests,  were  deceived 
by  the  similarity  of  the  entrances,  so  that  often  one  box  con- 
tamed  two  or  three  unamiable  aspirants  .for  the  honors  of 
maternity,  while  others  .were  entirely  forsaken.  Many  eggs 
were  broken,  more  were  addled,  and  hardly  enough  hatched 
to  establish  one  mother  as  the  happy  mistress  of  a  flourishing 
famih'.  Had  he  left  his  hens  to  their  own  instincts,  they 
would  liave  scattered  their  nests,  and  gladdened  his  ej^es  with 
a  numerous  offspring. 

Every  bee-keeper,  whose  hives  are  so  arranged  that  the 
young  queens  are  liable  to  make  mistakes,  nuist  count  upon 
l:ea\^'  losses.  If  he  puts  a  number  of  hives,  under  circum- 
stances similar  to  those  described,  upon  a  bench,  or  the  shelves 
of  a  bee-house,  he  can  never  keep  their  number  good  without 
constant  renewal. 

505.  The  bees  are  sometimes  so  excessively  agitated  when 
llieir  (lueen  leaves  for  imjiregnation  (120),  that  they  ex- 
hibit all  the  appearance  of  swarming.  Th^y  seem  to  have  an 
instinctive  perception  of  the  dangers  which  await  her,  and 
we  have  known  them  to  gather  around  her  and  confine  her. 
as  though  they  ctuild  not  bear  to  have  her  leave.  If  a  queeji 
is  lost  on  her  wedding  excursion,  the  bees  of  an  old  colony 
wnll  gradually  decline;  those  of  an  after-swarm,  will  either 
unite  with  another  hive,  or  dwindle  away  (182). 

506.  It  would  be  interesting,  could  Ave  learn  how  bees 
become  informed  of  the  loss  of  their  queen.  When  she  is 
taken    from    them   under  circumstances  that   excite  the  whole 


LOSS    OF  THE   QUEEN.  2(35 

colony,  we  can  easily  see  liuw  they  lind  it  out;  tor,  as  a 
tender  mother,  hi  time  of  danger,  is  all  anxiety  for  her  help- 
less children,  so  bees,  when  alarmed,  always  seek  tirst  to  assure 
themselves  of  the  safety  of  their  queen.  If,  however,  the 
queen  is  very  carefully  lemoved,  several  Lours  may  elapse 
before  they  I'ealize  their  loss.  How  do  they  first  become  aware 
of  it?  Perhaps  some  dutiful  bee,  anxious  to  embrace  her 
mother,  makes  diligent  search  for  her  through  the  hive.  The 
intelligence  that  she  cannot  be  found  being  noised  abroad, 
the  whole  family  is  speedily  alarmed.  At  such  times,  instead 
of  calmly  conversing,  by  touching  each  other's  antennae,  they 
may  be  seen  violentlj^  striking  them  together,  and  by  the 
most  impassioned  demonstrations  manifesting  their  agony  and 
despair. 

We  once  removed  the  queen  of  a  small  colony,  the  bees 
of  which  took  wing  and  filled  the  air,  in  search  of  her. 
Although  she  was  returned  in  a  few  minutes,  royal-cells 
were  found  two  days  later.  The  queen  was  unhurt,  and  the 
cells  mi  tenanted.  Was  this  work  begun  by  some  that  did  not 
believe  the  others,  when  assured  that  she  ^^as  safe?  or  from 
(he  apprehensicn  that  she  might  be  removed  again? 

507.  As  soon  as  the  bees  begin  to  fly  briskly  in  the 
Spring,  a  colony  which  does  not  industriously  gather  pollen, 
or  accept  of  flour  (267),  is  almost  certain  to  have  no  queen, 
or  one  that  is  not  fertile— unless  it  is  on  the  eve  of  perishing 
from  starvation. 

A  colony  is  sure  to  be  queenless,  if,  after  taking  its  first 
Spring-flight,  the  bees,  by  roaming,  in  an  enquiring  manner 
in  and  out  of  the  hive  show  that  some  great  calamity  has 
befallen  them.  Those  that  come  from  the  rields,  instead  of 
entering  the  hive  with  that  dispatchful  haste  so  character- 
istic of  a  bee  returning,  well  loaded,  to  a  prosperous  home, 
usually  linger  about  the  entrance  with  an  idle  and  dissatisfied 
appearance,  and  the  colony  is  restless,  late  in  the  day,  when 
others  are  quiet.  Their  home,  like  that  of  a  man  who  is 
cursed  in  his  domestic  relations,  is  a  melancholy  place,  and 
they  enter  it  only  with  reluctant  and  slow-moving  steps. 


266  QUEEN  REARING. 

508.  And  liere,  if  permitted  to  address  a  word  of  friendly 
advice,  we  would  say  to  eveiy  wife— Do  all  that  you  can  to 
make  your  husband's  home  a  place  of  attraction.  When 
absent  from  it,  let  his  heart  glow  at  the  thought  of  return- 
ing to  its  dear  enjoyments;  as  he  approaches  it,  let  his 
countenance  involuntarily  assume  a  more  cheerful  expres- 
sion, while  his  joy-quickened  steps  proclaim  that  he  feels  that 
there  is  no  place  like  the  cheerful  home  where  his  chosen 
wife  and  companion  presides  as  its  happy  and  honored 
Queen. 

"The  tenth  and  last  species  of  women  were  made  out  of  a 
bee;  and  happy  is  the  man  who  gets  such  a  one  for  his  wife. 
She  is  full  of  virtue  and  prudence,  and  is  the  best  wife  that 
Jupiter  can  bestow." — Spectator,  No.  209. 

509.  The  neglect  of  a  colony  to  expel  drones  (192), 
when  they  are  destroyed  in  other  hives,  is  always  a  suspicious 
sign,  and  generally  an  indication  either  that  it  has  no  queen, 
or  else  a  drone-laying  one  (134),  or  drone-laying  workers 
(176).  A  colony,  in  these  circumstances,  will  not  even 
destroy  the  drones  of  other  hives,  which  may  come  to  it, 
until  a  healthy  queen  has  been  raised  in  the  hive,  and  is  fer- 
tilized, and  laying  worker-eggs. 

510.  In  opening  a  queenless  hive,  the  plaintive  hum  of 
die  bees,  the  listless  and  intermittent  vibrating  of  their  wings, 
and  the  total  lack  of  eggs,  or  young  worker  brood,  tell  their 
condition. 

A  comb,  with  hatching  bees,*  should  be  given  to  it  from 
ft  stronger  colony,  together  with  another  comb,  of  eggs  and 
larvge,  from  the  best  colony  in  the  apiary;  and  the  number 
of  its  combs  should  be  reduced  to  suit  the  size  of  the  clus- 
ter. 

A  better  way  yet  to  supply  the  loss,  is  to  give  the  colony 
a  queen-cell  (103)  or  a  young  queen  raised  in  the  manner  to 
be  now  described. 


*  That  class  of  bee-keepers  who  suppose  that  all  such  operations  are 
the  "new  fangled"  inventions  of  modern  times,  will  be  surprised  to  learn 
that  Columella,  1800  years  ago,  recommended  strengthening  feeble  col- 
onies, by  ruttinrf  out  combs  from  stronger  ones,  containing  workers 
"just  gnawing  out   of  their   cells." 


REARING    IMPROVED   RACES.  26? 

Rearixg  IMPRO^'ED  Races. 

511.  We  will  show  (550)  that  some  races  of  bees  are 
superior  to  others.  Even  in  the  same  apiary ,  some  colonies 
are  better  than  others,  in  prolificness,  honey-gathering,  en- 
durance, gentleness,  etc.  It  is  very  important  to  improve 
the  apiary  by  rearing  queens  from  the  best  breeds,  for  the 
increase  of  colonies,  as  well  as  to  replace  the  inferior  ones. 

To  this  end,  the  bee-keeper  should  select  two  or  more  of 
the  best  colonies  in  his  apiary,  one  for  the  production  of 
drones,  the  others  for  the  production  of  queens.  Italian 
(551)  bees  are  universally  preferred;  and  as  they  are  now 
almost  as  easily  found  as  common  bees,  and  are  very  cheap, 
we  advise  the  novice  to  begin  with  at  least  two  queens  of 
this  race. 

A  slight  mixture  of  Cyj^rian  or  Syrian  (559)  blood  is 
good,  provided  the  issue  be  gentle  and  peaceable.  Hybrids 
of  common  bees  and  Italians  are  often  inferior,  both  in  quality 
and  disposition,  and  their  characteristics  are  not  fixed. 

512.  In  selecting  a  colony  for  drone  production,  the 
color  and  size  of  the  drones  should  not  be  considered  so 
much,  as  the  prolificness  of  its  queen,  and  the  qualities  of 
its  workers,  unless  you  wish  to  breed  for  beauty,  in  prefer- 
ence to  honey-production. 

Place  two  drone-combs  (224)  in  the  center  of  the  brood- 
chamber  of  this  colony,  as  soon  as  it  has  recuperated  from 
its  winter  losses.  If  the  colony  is  kept  well  supplied  with 
honej^,  enough  drones  will  be  raised  to  impregnate  all  the 
queens  in  the  neighborhood;  otherwise,  they  might  destroy 
these  early  drones  after  having  raised  them. 

If  our  directions  on  the  removal  of  drone-comb  (675)  arc 
followed,  but  few  drones  will  be  raised  outside  of  those 
colonies  specially  intended  for  drone-breeding.  As  soon  as 
they  begin  to  hatch,  we  may  make  preparations  for  queen- 
rearing,  the  best  time  being  at  the  opening  of  fruit-blossoms. 
Some  queen-breeders  begin  earlier,  but  early  breeding  gives 
much  trouble  and  little  paj^  and  our  advice  to  Northern  Apiar- 
ists, who  want  early  queens,  is  to  buy  them  from  some  re- 


268  yUKKN    KKAtilNd. 

liable  biouthern  Apiarist,  as  lliey  can  be  raised  earlier  in  the 
South,  much  more  cheaply  than  in  the  North. 

513.  In  an  apiary  composed  of  several  colonies,  there 
ai"e  always  some  which  are  not  expected  to  yield  much  crop, 
either  because  their  queens  are  old,  or  because  they  are  not 
prolific.  Such  queens  are  of  veiy  little  value,  and  should  be 
replaced.  Select  one  of  these  colonies— not  the  poorest,  unless 
it  is  populous  enough  to  raise  good  queens.  Kill  its  queen, 
and  exchange  its  brood-combs,  after  having  brushed  the  bees 
off,  for  a  less  number  of  combs,  containing  eggs  and  larvae, 
from  your  best  queen.  It  may  be  well  to  feed  the  colonies 
containing  the  select  queens  beforehand,  so  as  to  incite  the 
laying  of  eggs   (154)   and  nursing  of  the  brood. 

514.  If  you  desire  to  raise  queens  from  eggs  (490),  or 
larvae  just  hatching',  prepare  for  it,  by  giving  your  select 
colony  some  frames  of  diy  comb,  or  comb  foundation,  (674) 
a  few  days  ahead,  for  the  queen  to  lay  in.  In  this  case, 
only  those  combs  that  contain  eggs  and  young  larv^ae  should 
be  given  to  the  queenless  colony.  It  is  ahvays  better  to  give 
but  a  small  number  of  brood-combs  to  the  colony  intended 
for  queen-raising,  end  to  reduce  its  space  wdth  the  division- 
board  (349) ;  as  \h^j  can  best  keep  it  warm,  in  this  man- 
ner, and  raise  better  queens. 

We  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  nearer  we  get  the  colony 
that  raises  queens  to  the  condition  of  a  hive  preparing  to 
swarm,  the  better  the  queens  will  be.  In  a  word,  the  hive 
in  which  queens  are  reared  must  be  well  supplied  with  bees, 
brood  and  honey,  so  the  young  queens  may  be  well  fed  and 
kept  warm. 

515.  The  largest  number  of  queen-cells  can  be  obtained 
by  cutting  holes  into  the  combs  under  the  cells  containing 
young  \arv8s  or  eggs,  and  feeding  the  bees  plentifully.  Some 
Apiarists  hold  that,  by  leaving  them  without  brood  of  any 
kind  for  a  few  hours,  they  will  raise  more  cells  afterwards. 

516.  Nme  days  after  the  furnishing  of  the  brood  to  the 
queenless  colony,  count  the  number  of  queen-cells  raised, 
remembering  that  one  has  to  be  left  to  the  colony  that  raised 


REAKiXc;    IMFRONED    RACES. 


Fig.    100. 

QUEEN-CELL, 

REMOVED. 


them.  On  the  same  day.  make  swarms, 
(475)  or  nuclei,  (522 j  or  destroy  worth- 
less queens  (155)  which  you  desire  to  re- 
place next  day. 

517.  The  next  day^  with  a  sharp  pen- 
knife, carefully  remove  a  piece  of  comb,  aii 
inch  or  more  square,  that  contains  a  queen - 
cell  (Fig.  100),  and  in  one  of  the  brood 
combs  of  the  hive  to  which  this  cell  is  to  be 
given,  cut  a  place  just  large  enough  to  re- 
ceive and  hold  it  in  a  natural  position. 
(Fig.  101.) 

Each  queenless  stock  can  thus  be  supplied   with  a  queoi., 
leady  to  hatch,  from  the  best  breeding  mother. 


.       Fig.   101. 
(From  Gravenhor.«t. ) 

CUTTING     OUT     AND     INSERT- 
ING   QUEEN-CELLS. 

A,  Unsealed  cell.  B,  in- 
serted cell.  C,  Unfin- 
ished cell.  D,  Deceptive 
cell  just  begun. 


Unless  very  great  care  is  used  in  transferring  a  royal  cell, 
its  inmate  will  be  destroyed,  as  her  body,  imtil  she  is  nearly 
mature,  is  so  exceedingly  soft,  that  a  slight  compression  of 
her  cell— especially  near  the  base,  where  there  is  no  cocoon— 
generally  proves  fatal.  For  this  reason,  it  is  best  to  defer 
removing  them,  until  they  are  within  three  or  four  days  of 
hatching.  A  queen-cell,  nearly  mature,  may  be  known  by 
its  having  the  wax  removed  from  the  lid,  by  the  bees,  so  as 
to  give  it  a  brown  appearance. 

518.     If  the  weather  is  warm,  and  the  hive,  to  which  a 


270 


gUKEX   RKARING. 


(jueeii-cell  is  given,  is  very  populous,  tiie  cell  may  be  intro- 
duced by  simply  inserting-  it  in  its  natural  position  between 
two  combs  of  brood.  It  is  very  important  to  have  the  queen- 
cell  in  or  near  the  brood,  or  the  bees  might  neglect  it. 

Sometimes,    the    bees    so    crowd    the      royal   cells    together 


^^PMm 


Fig.    102. 

CLUSTER     OF     CELLS. 

(From  "Advanced  Bee  Culture.") 


(fig.  102)  that  it  is  difficult  to  remove  one  without  fatally 
injuring:  another,  as,  when  a  cell  is  cut  into,,  the  destruction 
and   removal   of   the   larva   usually   follows.     Mr.    Alley,   by 


NUCLEI. 


271 


his  method,  given  further  on  (528),  found  a  remedy  for 
this.  If  many  queens  are  to  be  raised,  it  is  Avell  to  have  a 
new  supply  of  cells  started  every  week  or  even  oftener. 

519.  A  day  or  two  after  hitroducing  the  queen-cells,  the 
Apiarist  can  ascertain,  by  examination,  whether  they  have 
been  accepted.  If  they  have  not  been  accepted,  the  cells  will 
be  fomid  torn  open,  on  the  side 
(fig.  103),  mstead  of  on  the  end, 
and  the  colonies  will  have  begun 
queen-cells  of  their  own  brood. 
These  queen-cells  must  be  de- 
stroyed and  replaced  by  others 
from  the  next  supply.  In  removing 
them,  the  greatest  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  pass  the  deceptive 
queen-cells,  if  any  are  there  (fig. 
101),  which,  although  less  appar- 
ent, would  disappoint  the  end  in 
view. 

520.  When  queens  are  raised 
ahead  of  time  for  artificial  in- 
crease, italianizing,  or  for  sale,  it 
is  more  profitable  to  use  nuclei  in- 
stead of  full  colonies  to  hatch  these 
queens.  The  word  nuclei  (plural 
of  nucleus),  from  the  Latin  nucleus 
a  nut,  a  kernel,  was  first  applied 
by  Mr.  Langstroth  to  diminutive 
colonies  of  bees.  This  term  is 
now  universally  adopted  on  both 
continents. 

521.  When     we     were    raising 

queens    for    sale,    we    had    contrived  a,  hatched  cell  ;   b,  sealed  cell ; 
a  divisible   frame    (figs.   104-105)    to      c,    rudimentary   cell;    d,   cell 

make   these  nuclei  of  combs  taken  ^^^    ^ 

from  full  colonies.    Uur  combs  could  be  thus  separated  in  two, 

and  used  in  smaller  hives,  and  in  the  Fall,  these  same  combs 


Fig.     103. 

QUEEN-CELLS. 


272  QUEEN    REARING. 

were  returned  to  the  full  colonies.  Two  small  frames  are 
more  advantageous  than  one  large  frame,  as  they  give  more 
compactness  to  the  cluster.     Besides,  these  small  colonies  can 


Fig.    104. 

DIVISIBLE    FRAME,    OLD    STYLK. 


be  built   up   easily   afterwards   by    coupling   the    frames,   and 
uniting  the  combs  of  3  or  -4  nuclei  into  one  large  hive. 


Fig.  105. 

TXTERCHA.N'GEABLE     DIVISIBLE     FRAME. 


It  is  not  necessaiy  to  have  many  of  these  frames  in  an  api- 
ary, as  a  few  are  sufficient  to  make  a  number  of  nuclei,  if 
they  are  placed  in  the  centre  of  full  colonies  early  in  Spring. 


NUCLEI. 


273 


Two  frames  thus  made  from  one  standard  Langstroth  frame 
measure  about  8^/^  by  8^2  inches  each,  a  very  convenient  size 
for  nucleus  frames. 


ra  fe- 


S   as 

o    =  I 


In  the  Fall,  a  number  of  nuclei  may  be  united,  in  a  full 
sized  hive,  on  their  own  combs  by  this  method. 

522.     To  make  a  nucleus,  take  from  a  colony,  as  late  in 


274  gUKEX  REARING. 

the  afternoon  as  there  is  light  enough  to  do  it,  a  comb  con- 
taining worker-egg's,  and  bees  just  gnawing  out  of  their  cells, 
and  put  it,  with  the  mature  bees  that  are  on  it,  into  an 
empty  hive.  If  there  are  not  bees  enough  adhering  to  it, 
to  prevent  the  brood  from  being  chilled  during  the  night, 
more  must  be  shaken  into  the  hive  from  other  combs.  If 
the  transfer  is  made  so  late  in  the  day  that  the  bees  are  not 
disposed  to  leave  the  hive,  enough  may  have  hatched,  by  morn- 
ing, to  supply  the  place  of  those  which  will  return  to  the 
l)arent  stock.  > 

523.  In  every  case,  when  a  swarm  has  left  its  hive  for 
another  quarter,  each  bee^  as  she  sallies  out,  flies  with  her 
head  turned  towards  it,  that  by  marking  the  surrounding 
objects,  she  may  find  her  way  back.  If,  however,  the  bees 
did  not  emigrate  of  their  own  free  will,  most  of  them  appear- 
ing to  forget,  or  not  knowing,  that  their  location  has  been 
(dianged,  return  to  their  familiar  spot;  for  it  would  seem 
that, 

"A  'bee  removed'  against  her  will, 
Is  of  the  same  opinion  still." 

Should  the  Apiarist,  ignorant  of  this  fact,  place  the  nu- 
cleus on  a  new  stand  without  providing  it  w^th  a  sufficient 
number  of  young  bees,  it  would  lose  so  many  of  the  bees 
which  ought  to  be  retained  m  it,  that  most  of  its  unsealed 
brood  would  perish  from  neglect. 

If  the  comb  used  in  forcing  such  a  nucleus  was  removed 
at  a  time  of  day  when  the  bees  would  be  likely  to  return  to 
the  parent  stock,  they  should  be  confined  to  the  hive,  until 
it  is  too  late  for  them  to  leave ;  and  if  the  number  of  bees,  just 
emerging  from  their  cells,  is  not  large,  the  entrance  to  the 
hive  should  be  closed,  until  about  an  hour  before  sunset  of 
the  next  day  but  one.  The  hive  containhig  this  small  col- 
ony, should  be  properly  ventilated,  and  shaded— if  thin  — 
from  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun;  it  should  always  be  well 
supplied  with  honey.  The  space  unoccupied  in  the  hive  should 
be  separated  from  the  nucleus  by  a  division  board  (340). 


NUCLEI  2tO 

524.  Beginners  must  remember  that  it  is  better  to  have 
these  small  nuclei  strong  with  bees;  but,  in  giving  them 
young  bees,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  give  them  the  queen. 
If  a  nucleus  is  made  at  mid-day,  nearly  all  the  bees  given 
to  it  will  be  j'oung  bees,  as  the  old  bees  are  then  in  the  field.* 

The  best  manner  to  add  young  bees  from  strange  colonies 
to  weak  nuclei,  is  to  shake  or  brush  them,  on  the  apron  board 
in  front  of  the  entrance,  as  is  done  m  swarming  (428).  t 

525.  Hives,  or  nuclei  in  which  queen-cells  are  to  be  in- 
troduced, should  be  aware  of  their  queenless  condition  before 
a  queen-cell  is  given  them.  Hence  the  necessity  of  preparing 
them  24  hours  previous. 

526.  A  vigilant  eye  should  be  kept  upon  every  colony 
that  has  not  an  impregnated  queen;  and  when  its  Cjueen  is 
about  a  week  old  it  should  be  examined,  and  if  she  has  be- 
come fertile,  she  will  usually  be  found  supplymg  one  of  the 
central  combs  with  eggs.  If  neither  queen  nor  eggs  can  be 
found,  and  there  are  no  certain  indications  that  she  is  lost, 
the  hive  should  be  examined  a  few  days  later,  for  some  queens 
are  longer  in  becoming  impregnated  than  others,  and  it  is  often 
difficult  to  find  an  unimpregnated  one,  on  account  of  her  adroit 
way  of  hiding  among  the  bees. 

As  soon  as  the  young  queen  lays,  she  may  be  mtrodiiced 
to  a  queenless  colony,  or  sold,  and  if  queen-cells  are  kept 
on  hand,  another  one  can  be  given  to  the  nucleus  the  next 
day.  Thus,  nuclei  may  be  made  to  raise  two  queens  or  more 
in  a  month. 

527.  If  the  queens  are  to  be  multiplied  rapidly,  the 
nuclei  must  never  be  allowed  to  become  too  much  reduced 
in  numbers,  or  to  be  destitute  of  brood  or  honey.  With 
these  precautions,  the  oftener  their  queen  is  taken  from  them, 
the  more  intent  they  will  usually  become  in  supplying  her  loss. 

*  Some  apiarists  place  nuclei  in  the  cellar  for  a  day  or  two,  to  ac- 
custom the  bees  to  their  new  home. 

t  If  these  bees  are  taken  from  colonies  that  have  been  previously 
made  queenless,  they  will  more  readily  remain  in  their  new  homes,  but 
young  bees  that  have  not  yet  taken  flight  seldom  leave  the  hive  to 
which  they  are  given,  if  it  has  already  brood  and  bees. 


270  COMMERCIAL    QUEEN    REARING. 

There  is  one  trail  in  llie  character  of  bies  which  is  worthy 
of  profound  respect.  Such  is  their  indomitable  energy  and 
])erseverance,  that  under  circumstances  apparently  hopeless, 
they  labor  to  the  utmost  to  retrieve  tlieir  losses,  and  sustahi 
the  sinking  State.  So  long  as  they  have  a  queen,  or  any 
l)rospect  of  raising  one,  they  struggle  vigorously  against  im- 
jieiiding  ruin,  and  never  give  up  until  their  condition  is  abso- 
lutely desperate.  We  once  knew  a  colony  of  bees  not  large 
enough  to  cover  a  piece  of  comb  four  inches  square,  to  attempt 
to  raise  a  queen.  For  two  whole  weeks,  they  adhered  to  their 
forlorn  hope;  until  at  last,  when  they  had  dwindled  to  less 
than  one-half  their  original  number,  their  new  queen  emerged, 
l)ut  with  wmgs  so  imperfect  that  she  could  not  fly.  Crippled 
as  she  was,  they  treated  her  with  almost  as  much  respect  as 
though  she  were  fertile.  In  the  course  of  a  week  more,  scarce 
a  dozen  workers  remained  in  the  hive,  and  a  few  days  later, 
the  queen  was  gone,  and  only  a  few  disconsolate  w^-etches  were 
left  on  the  comb. 

COMMERCIAL  QUEEN  HEARING. 

THE    ALLEY   METHOD. 

528.  Mr.  Alley,  who  raised  (jueens  by  the  thousand,  has 
published  his  method  of  queen-rearmg.  His  queens  are  all 
raised  in  very  small  nuclei  which  he  calls  miniature  hives. 
From  a  light-colored  worker-comb  filled  with  hatching  eggs, 
he  cuts  strips  with  a  sharp  knife,  as  in  fig.  107. 


Fig.    107. 

EGG   IN    EVERY    OTHER   CELL. 

(From  Alley.) 

"After  the  comb  has  been  cut  up,  lay  the  pieces  flat  upon  a 
board  or  table,  and  cut  the  cells  on  one  side  down  to  within 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  foundation   or  septum,   as  seen   in 


ALLEY  S   METHOD.  Zi  i 

fig.  108  which  represents  the  comb  ready  to  place  in  position 
for  cell  building.  While  engaged  in  this  work,  keep  a  lighted 
lamp  near  at  hand,  with  which  to  heat  the  knife,  or  the  cells 
will  be  badly  jammed 

The  strips  of  comb  being  ready,  we  simply  destroy  each  alter- 
nate larva  or  egg,  (fig.  107).  In  order  to  do  this,  take  the 
strips  carefully  in  the  left  hand,  and  insert  the  end  of  a  com- 
mon lucifer  match  into  each  alternate  cell,  pressing  it  gently 
on  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  and  then  twirling  it  rapidly  between 
the  thumb  and  fingers.  This  gives  plenty  of  room  for  large 
cells  to  be  built  without  interfering  with  those  adjoining,  and 
permits  of  their  being  separated  without  injury  to  neighboring 
cells."— ''Bee-keepers'  Handy  Book,"  1885. 


Fig.   108.      (From  Alley.) 

This  strip,  Mr.  Alley  fastens  under  a  trimmed  comb  cut 
slightly  convex,  by  dipping  the  cells,  which  have  been  left 
full  length,  into  a  mixture  of  two  parts  rosin  and  one  of 
beeswax,  taking  care  not  to  over-heat  this  mixture,  as  the 
heat  might  destroy  the  eggs  (fig.  109).  The  comb  thus  pre- 
pared is  given  to  a  prepared  colony,  which  has  been  queen- 
less  and  without  brood  for  ten  hours,  Mr.  Alley  having  noticed 
that  the  eggs  may  be  destroyed  if  given  to  a  colony  just  made 
queen  less. 

529.  As  it  happens  very  often,  that  more  queen-cells  are 
raised  than  are  needed  immediately,  and  as  the  bees  usually 
destroy  all  after  the  first  one  has  hatched,  Apiarists  have 
devised  queen-nurseries  to  preser^'e  the  supernumerary  cells 
until  needed.  It  is  not  safe  to  leave  the  queen-cells  under 
the  control  of  the  bees  after  ten  days,  as  a  queen  may  hatch 
at  any  time. 

The  Alley  queen-nursery  is  composed  of  a  number  of  small 


278  COMMKKCIAL   gUEEX    HEARING. 

cages,  covered  with  wire  cloth  on  each  side  aud  inserted  in 
a  frame.  Each  cage  has  two  holes  at  the  top,  one  for  a  sponge 
saturated  with  honey,  the  other  to  receive  the  queen-cell.  The 
frame  is  inserted  in  a  strong  colony,  not  necessarily  queenless, 


Fig.    109. 

now    OF    QUEEN    CELLS. 

(From    Alley.) 

since  these  young  queens  are  caged,  and  have  feed  at  hand 
when  they  hatch. 

The  latest  style  of  queen  nursery  is  shown  on  i)late  19. 

The  Doolittle  Method. 

530.  Since  the  foregoing  was  written,  the  breeding  of 
queens  for  sale  has  taken  a  new  impetus.  Mr.  G.  M.  Doolittle, 
of  New  York,  devised  a  method  by  which  it  does  not  become 
necessarv  for  man  to  wait  for  the  action  of  bees  in  rearing 


DOOLITTLE   METHOD  279 

queens.  He  worked  persistently  until  lie  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing queen-cells  artificially,  and  this  method,  described  by 
him  in  his  little  work,  "Scientific  queen-rearmg,"  has  been 
much  improved  upon  of  late  years  and  is  now  called  "The 
Doolittle  System."  It  consists  in  manufacturing  queen  cell 
cups  artificially  out  of  beeswax  and  supplying  them  Avith 
young  larvae  or  eggs  transferred  into  them  from  worker  cells. 
A  large  number  of  these  queen-cells  are  furnished  to  a  queen- 
less  colony,  and  after  the  work  of  perfecting  the  queen-cells 
has  been  done  by  the  queenless  bees,  they  are  given  into  the 
upper  stoiy  of  a  strong  colony  whose  bees  will  properly  take 
care  of  these  queen-cells  on  the  only  condition  that  this  upper 
story  is  separated  from  the  main  breeding  apartment  in  which 
the  queen  is  laying,  by  means  of  a  queen  excluder  (732).  It 
is  astonishing  but  it  is  nevertheless  a  fact  that  bees  on  the 
other  side  of  a  queen  excluding  ]jartition  in  a  hive  containing 
a  good  queen,  will  take  care  of  queen-cells  given  them  and  will 
allow  them  to  hatch.  The  Messrs.  Giraud  of  Landreau,  France, 
in  their  little  work  "Traite  Pratique  de  I'elevage  des  reines" 
even  advise  the  using  of  a  colony  with  queen,  for  the  entire 
work,  separating  the  combs  in  which  queen  cells  are  reared 
from  the  main  apartment  by  a  perforated  zinc.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  rearing  as  many  as  five  hundred  queen-cells  during 
one  season  from  one  of  their  best  colonies  and  the  entire  work 
was  done  in  the  hive  occupied  by  that  colony.  This  colony 
was  kept  supjDlied  with  a  plentiful  amount  of  feed  during  a 
scarcity  of  honey  to  keep  up  its  breeding  and  its  strength. 

In  the  manner  above  mentioned,  an  unlimited  number  of 
queens,  if  properlj'  cared  for,  may  be  i-aised  from  the  best 
and  most  fertile  queens.  But  when  the  queen-cells  are  about 
ready  to  hatch,  the  queens  must  he  protected,  for  the  first 
hatched  would  at  once  destroy  the  others.  For  this  purpose, 
they  use  something  similar  to  the  queen-nursery  of  Alley.  The 
nursery  used  by  W.  H.  Pridgen  of  North  Carolina,  described 
and  recommended  by  W.  Z.  Hutchinson,  in  his  work  "Ad- 
vanced Bee-culture"  and  of  which  we  give  an  engraving,  Plate 
19,   is  probably  the  most  practical  for  the  pur])ose,  especially 


280 


COMMERCIAL   QUEEN  REARING. 


it  is  kept  on  the  same  frame  as  the  cell  cups  and  sealed 
queen-cells. 


*'For  making  the  artificial  cells,  there  is  needed 
a  dipping-stick  (fig.  110)  which  is  a  round  stick 
5-16  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  peculiar  taper 
at  one  end.  The  tapering  part  should  be  about 
5-16  of  an  inch  long,  reduced  rapidly  for  the  first 
Ys  of  an  inch  and  then  gradually  reduced  to  the 
end.  It  would  slip  into  a  worker  cell  %  of  an  inch 
before  filling  the  lyouth  of  the  cell.  These  dip- 
ping sticks  can  be  made  with  a  lathe,  from  any  kind 
of  hard  wood.  To  dip  the  cells,  beeswax  must  be 
kept  just  above  the  melting  point  by  placing  the 
dish  containing  it  over  a  lighted  lamp.  Keep  a 
little  water  in  the  dish,  as  this  will  be  a  guide  to 
the  temperature.  No  bubbling  should  be  allowed. 
The  stick  after  being  thoroughly  soaked  in  water 
is  dipped  rather  less  than  a  half  inch  into  the 
beeswax,  four  dips  usually  completing  the  cell  and 
attaching  it  to  the  wooden  bar  upon  which  it  is 
supported  while  in  the  hive.  Dip  three  times,  then 
loosen  up  the  cup  on  the  stick,  then  dip  again,  and 
immediately  press  the  base  of  the  cell  upon  the 
stick  at  the  point  where  it  is  *;tsired  to  have  the 
cell   remain."      ("Advanced   Boe   Culture.") 


To  transfer  the  larva,  from   worker   cells   into 
these  artificial  queen-cells,  Mr.  Pridgen  gives  the 
Fig.  110.       following  directions : 

DIPPING-STICK. 

**To  make  a  success  of  this  the  comb  must  be  old  enough  so 
that  the  outside  of  the  cocoon  is  black  and  glossy.  By  shaving 
down  the  cells  with  a  keen  edge  knife,  slightly  heated,  until 
the  walls  of  the  cell  are  only  about  %  of  an  inch  deep,  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  remove  the  cocoon  with  the  accompanying 
larva.  In  fact,  by  bending  the  piece  of  comb  back  and  forth, 
the  cocoons  can  often  be  forced  to  drop  out  of  their  own  accord 
By  making  a  little  funnel  shaped  cavity  in  the  dipping  stick. 
at  the  opposite  end  from  that  used  in  dipping  the  tells,  tho 
larva   and   cocoon   can   be   lifted   by    pressinnr  this  cavity  down 


DOOLITTLS   METHOD  281' 

over  them,  much  as  a  gun  cap  is  pressed  down  over  the  tube. 
After  placing  the  end  of  the  stick  in  one  of  the  cups,  a  slight 
pressure  and  a  little  twist  leaves  the  cocoon  snugly  ensconced 
in  the  bottom  of  the  cell-cup." 

In  order  to  succeed,  in  breeding  queens  for  sale,  it  requires 
good  judgment,  daily  attention  to  the  needs  of  the  queens,  and 
indefatigable  perseverance.  The  queens  when  hatched  should 
be  at  once  removed  from  the  queen-nursery,  so  they  may  not 
wear  themselves  out  by  repeated  attempts  at  escaping.  It  may 
be  borne  in  mmd,  however,  that  yomig  queens  may  be  caged 
quite  a  while  without  injury,  since  in  the  natural  conditions 
the  worker  bees  often  imprison  the  young  queens  in  their  cells 
until  a  favorable  moment  for  swarming. 

531.  In  order  to  economize  in  the  rearing  of  queens,  queen 
breeders  have  lately  devised  what  is  called  ''baby-nuclei"  simi- 
lar to  the  diminutive  hives  of  Alley,  but  still  smaller,  in  which 
only  about  two  hundred  young  bees  full  of  honey  are  intro- 
duced. The  virgin  queen  is  introduced  to  one  of  these  and  is 
sure  to  be  welcome,  especially  if  those  bees  have  been  taken 
from  a  queen  less  colony.  There  she  remains  until  mated,  which 
is  usually  within  a  very  short  time.  The  only  advantage  that 
we  can  see  in  this  method  is  its  cheapness,  and  the  jDerhaps 
greater  ease  with  which  the  queen  can  be  introduced,  but  for 
several  reasons  and  especially  for  the  greater  comfort  and 
success  of  the  queen,  we  would  prefer  to  use  the  larger  nuclei 
(521),  where  the  conditions  are  more  nearly  similar  to  those 
of  full  colonies. 

Whatever  we  do  in  the  breeding  of  queens,  let  us  bear  in 
mind  that  we  must  keep  our  bees  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
conditions  in  which  queens  are  reared  naturally.  This  is  indis- 
pensable for  the  raising  of  good  stock.  Apiarists  of  note  have 
objected  to  the  Doolittle  method,  because  of  its  forcing  nature, 
but  as  good  stock  is  raised,  by  this  method,  as  m  the  natural 
way,  and  a  greater  number  of  good  queens  may  be  raised  than 
in  any  other  way.  This  is  very  much  similar  to  the  methods 
in  which  we  increase  our  choice  varieties  of  fruit  trees.  Graft- 


2S2  QUEEN  REARING. 

iiig  is  not  oue  of  nature's  waj's,  yet  we  succeed  in  raising  some 
of  our  best  fruit  by  grafting.  But  in  grafting  as  in  queen 
rearing,  much  care  is  needed  in  order  to  bring  forth  the  most 
satisfactory  results. 

The  Apiarist  who  desires  to  make  (]ueen  rearing  a  specialty 
should  carefully  read  everj'thing  of  importance  concerning  the 
subject.  We  recommend  the  special  work  of  Doolittle,  "Scien- 
tific Queen  Rearing,"  and  the  magnificently  executed  book  of 
Hutchinson  "Advanced  Bee  Culture,"  of  which  extracts  have 
been  given.  Bulletin  No.  55  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  at 
"Washmgton  is  a  paper  on  the  "Rearing  of  Queen  Bees,"  by 
E.  F.  Phillips  and  contains  also  some  valuable  information 
concerning  the  different  methods. 

532.  Before  we  pass  to  the  subject  of  introducing  queens, 
we  cannot  refrain  from  noticing  the  rapid  progress  of  the 
business  of  queen  rearing  in  the  last  fifty  years.  The  intro- 
duction of  brighter  races  has  greatly  increased  the  spread- 
ing of  apiarian  science,  and  many  facts  which,  years  ago, 
were  known  only  to  the  few,  now  belong  to  the  public  domain. 

In  breedmg  the  new  races,  let  the  novice  remember  that  the 
qualities  he  should  seek  to  improve  are,  first,  prolificness  and 
honey  production ;  second,  peaceableness ;  third,  beauty. 

Since  their  introduction  into  this  countiy,  the  Italians 
have  been  bred  too  nmch  for  color,  at  the  expense  of  their 
other  qualities.  We  have  seen  queens,  that  had  been  so  in- 
bred for  color,  that  their  mating  with  a  black  drone  hardly 
showed  the  hybridization  of  their  progeny. 

This  in-and-in  breeding,  for  color,  has  even  produced  white- 
eyed  drones,  stone  blind,  a  degeneracy  which  would  tend  to 
the  extinction  of  the  race. 

TxTRODurixc;  Impregnated  Queens. 

533.  Great  caution  is  needed  in  (jiving  to  bees  a  stranger 
queen.  Huber  thus  described  the  way  in  which  a  new  queen 
is  usually  received  by  a  colony: 


I'l.ATE    20. 


G.  M.  DOOLITTLE, 

Author  of  '■'■Scientific  Queen-Rearinq  **  and  of  ^'Maimqement 
of  Bees." 

This  writer  is  mentioned   pages  151,   175,   278,   279,   333,   392,   442,  443. 


IXTRODrCIX(;    niPREGXATED   QUEENS.  '283 

''If  another  queen  is  introduced  into  the  hive  within  twelve 
hours  after  the  removal  of  the  reigning  one,  they  surround, 
seize,  and  keep  her  a  very  long  time  captive,  in  an  impenetrable 
cluster,  and  she  commonly  dies  either  from  hunger  or  want  of 
air.  If  eighteen  hours  elapse  before  the  substitution  of  a 
stranger-queen,  she  is  treated,  at  first,  in  the  same  way,  but  the 
bees  leave  her  sooner,  nor  is  the  surrounding  cluster  so  close; 
they  gradually  disperse,  and  the  queen  is  at  last  liberated;  she 
moves  languidly,  and  sometimes  expires  in  a  few  minutes.  Some, 
however,  escape  in  good  health,  and  afterwards  reign  in  the 
hive." 

The  manner  in  which  strange  queens  are  treated  by  the 
bees,  when  they  are  queenless,  depends  mainly  on  the  state  of 
the  honey  harvest. 

534.  But  in  order  to  meet  with  uniform  success,  the  fol- 
lowing- conditions  must  be  fulfilled : 


Fig.   111. 

MILLER    QUEEX     CAGE. 

(From   "The   A    B   C   of   Bee-Culture.") 

The  bees  must  be  absolutelj^  queenless.  Sometimes  a  colony 
contains  two  (117)  queens,  and  the  Apiarist  after  removing 
one  may  imagine  that  he  can  introduce  a  stranger,  safely. 
Many  queens  are  thus  killed. 

535.  Bees  recognize  one  another  mainly  by  scent.  The 
queen,  especially  when  laying,  has  a  peculiar  odor, evidently  per- 
vading the  hive  and  known  to  the  bees.  It  is  thought  that  the 
absence  of  this  odor,  when  a  queen  is  removed,  alarms  the  bees 
because  they  recognize  their  loss.  When  a  nevv  queen  is  intro- 
duced, if  we  cause  the  bees  to  become  accustomed  to  her  odor 
before  we  release  her,  she  may  be  accepted  more  readily. 

536.  Our  method  consists  in  placing  the  queen  in  a  small 
flat  cage,  made  of  wire  cloth,  between  two  combs,  in  the  most 


284  gUEEX   REARING. 

])opulous  pai-t  of  the  hive,  near  the  brood  and  the  honey,  and 
keeping  her  there  from  24  to  48  hours.  These  queen-cages 
were  first  used  in  Gennany  for  introducing  queens. 

537.  In  catching  a  queen,  she  should  be  gently  taken 
with  the  fingers,  from  among  the  bees,  and  if  none  are 
ci'ushed,  there  is  no  risk  of  being  stung.  The  queen  herself 
will  not  sting,  even  if  roughly  handled. 

If  she  is  allowed  to  fly,  she  may  be  lost,  by  attempting  to 
enter  a  strange  hive. 

To  introduce  her  into  the  cage,  she  should  be  allowed  to 
climb  up  into  it.  It  is  a  fact  icell  known  to  queen  breeders 
that  a  bee  or  a  queen  cannot  be  easily  induced  to  enter  a  cage 
or  a  box  turned  downu-ard.  The  meshes  of  the  wire  cloth 
should  not  be  closer  than  12  to  the  inch,  that  the  bees  may 
feed  the  queen  readily  through  them.  This  is  important, 
for  we  have  lost  two  queens  successively  in  a  cage  with  closer 
meshes. 

The  bees  will  cultivate  an  acquaintance  -svith  the  imprisoned 
mother,  by  thrusting  their  antennae  through  the  openings,  and 
will  be  as  quiet  as  though  the  queen  had  her  liberty.  Such  a 
cage  will  be  veiy  convenient  for  any  temporaiy  confinement 
of  a  queen. 

538.  It  is  necessaiy,  when  the  queen  is  released,  that  the 
bees  be  in  good  spirits,  neither  frightened,  nor  angered,  and 
there  should  be  no  robbers  about,  as  they  might  take  her  for 
an   intruder,  and  ball  her.      (436). 

This  technical  word  is  used  to  describe  the  peculiar  way 
in  whic'i  bees  surround  a  queen  whom  they  want  to  kill.  The 
cluster  that  encloses  her,  is  in  the  form  of  a  ball,  sometimes 
as  large  as  one's  fist,  and  so  compact  that  it  cannot  readily 
be  scattered.  She  may  be  rescued  by  throwing  the  ball  into 
n  basin  of  water.  But  the  writer  never  had  the  patience  to 
delay,  for  fear  of  damage  to  the  balled  queen,  and  always 
succeeded  in  freeing  her  with  his  fingers.  We  have  known 
bees  to  ball  their  own  mother  in  such  circumstances,  for 
queens  are  of  a  timid  disposition  and  easily  frightened.    When 


INTRODUCING    IMPREGNATED    (QUEENS.  285 

we  release  a  strange  queen,  Ave  put  a  small  slice  of  comb 
honey,  or  honey  cappmgs,  in  place  of  the  stopper  of  the 
cage,  and  close  the  hive.  It  takes  from  15  to  20  minutes  for 
the  bees  to  eat  through,  and  by  that  time  all  is  quiet,  so  the 
queen  Avalks  leisurely  out  of  her  cage,  and  is  safe. 

539.  If  the  colony,  in  which  a  queen  is  to  be  introduced, 
is  destitute,  the  bees  should  be  abundantly  fed  on  the  pre- 
ceding night  (605).  After  she  has  been  released,  it  is  well 
to  leave  the  colony  alone  for  two  or  three  days. 

As  a  fertile  queen  can  lay  several  thousand  eggs  a  day,  it 
is  not  strange  that  she  should  quickly  become  exhausted,  if 
taken  from  the  bees.  ^^Ex  nihilo  nihil  fif'—trom  nothing, 
nothing  comes— and  the  arduous  duties  of  maternity  compel 
her  to  be  an  enormous  eater.  After  an  absence  from  the  bees 
of  only  fifteen  minutes,  she  will  solicit  honey,  when  returned; 
and  if  kept  away  for  an  hour  or  upwards,  she  must  either  be 
fed  by  the  Apiarist,  or  have  bees  to  supply  her  wants. 

Mr.  Simmins  has  taken  advantage  of  this  appetite,  and  of 
the  propensity  of  bees  to  feed  the  queens,  in  introducing  them 
directlj^,  after  keeping  them  without  bees  and  food,  for  about 
30  minutes.  At  dusk  he  lifts  a  corner  of  the  cloth  (352)  of 
the  hive  in  which  he  wants  to  introduce  the  queen,  drives  the 
bees  away  with  a  little  smoke,  and  permits  the  queen  to  rim 
between  the  combs.  Then  he  waits  48  hours  before  visiting 
the  hive.  Several  bee-keepers  report  having  succeeded  with 
this  method.  On  account  of  this  propensity  of  bees  to  feed 
queens,  any  number  of  fertile  ones  may  be  kept  in  a  hive 
already  containing  a  fertile  queen,  if  they  are  placed  in  cages 
between  the  combs,  near  the  honey  and  the  brood. 

In  very  good  honey  seasons,  queens  may  be  introduced  to 
colonies  without  previous  caging.  They  evidently  accept  a 
queen  under  such  circumstances  from  the  same  reason  that 
causes  them  to  accept  strange  bees  (485).  But  we  strongly 
recommend  never  to  attempt  to  introduce  a  valuable  queen  in 
this  way. 

Woi'ker  bees  should  never  be  caged  with  the  queen  when  she 


286  QUEEN  REARING. 

is  introduced,  as  the  other  bees,  noticing-  them  to  be  strangers, 
will  allow  them  to  starve,  though  they  will  feed  the  queen. 

540.  Some  Apiarists  use  chloroform,  ether,  puff-balls,  or 
other  ingTedients,  to  stupefy  the  bees  of  mutinous  colonies 
who  persist  in  refusing  to  accept  a  strange  queen  and  who 
show  it  by  angrily  surrounding  the  cage  in  which  she  is  con- 
fined. 

The  Rev.  John  Tliorley,  in  his  '^Female  Monarclu//'  pub- 
lished at  London,  in  1744,  appears  to  have  first  introduced  the 
practice  of  stupefying  bees  by  the  narcotic  fumes  of  the 
"puff  ball"  (Fungus  pulverulentus) ,  dried  till  it  will  hold 
fire  like  tinder.  The  bees  soon  drop  motionless  from  their 
comb,  and  recover  again  after  a  short  exposure  to  the  air. 
This  method  was  once  much  practiced  in  France,  (L'Apicul- 
teur,  page  17,  Paris,  1856)  but  is  veiy  dangerous,  as  too  large 
a  dose  of  anaesthetics  will  cause  death  instead  of  sleep. 

Introduction  of  Virgin  Queens. 

541.  The  difference  in  looks  between  a  virgin  queen  and 
an  impregnated  one  is  striking,  and  an  expert  will  distinguish 
them  at  a  glance.  The  virgin  queen  is  slender,  her  abdomen 
is  small,  her  motions  quick,  she  runs  about  and  almost  flies  over 
the  combs,  when  trying  to  hide  from  the  light.  In  fact,  she 
has  nothing  of  the  matronly  dignity  of  a  mother. 

Bees,  in  possession  of  a  fertile  queen,  are  quite  reluctant 
to  accept  an  unimpregnated  one  in  her  stead;  indeed,  it  re- 
quires much  experience  to  be  able  to  give  a  virgin  queen  to 
a  colony,  and  yet  be  sure  of  securing  for  her  a  good  reception. 

Mr.  Langstroth  was  the  first  to  ascertain,  years  ago,  that 
the  best  time  to  introduce  her,  is  just  after  her  birth,  as  soon 
as  she  can  crawl  readily.  If  introduced  too  soon,  the  bees 
may  drag  her  out,  as  they  would  any  imperfect  w^orker.  Most 
queen-breeders  liberate  them  on  the  comb,  or  at  the  entrance 
of  a  queenless  nucleus.  Mr.  H.  D.  Cutting  recommends  daub- 
ing the  young  queen  with  honey,  as  she  comes  out  of  her  cell, 


INTRODUCTION    OF    VIRGIN    QUEENS.  287 

and  liberating'  her  among  the  bees,  without  touching  her  with 
the  fingers. 

Nearly  all  breeders  acknowledge  that  the  introduction  of 
virgin  queens  to  full  colonies  is  an  uncertain  business,  and 
that  they  can  be  introduced  safely  only  to  small  nuclei  that 
have  been  queen  less  some  time.     In  this,  we  fully  agree. 

Doctor  C.  C.  Miller  recommends  the  introducing  of  a  young- 
queen  in  a  cage  while  the  fertile  queen  is  still  in  the  hive, 
removing  the  old  queen  a  little  later  and  leaving  the  virgin 
queen  caged  for  two  or  three  days,  allowing  the  bees  to  liberate 
her  by  eating  through  honey  or  candj^  to  reach  her  (598). 
But  the  only  way  which  may  be  held  absolutely  safe  is  to 
introduce  the  virgin  queen  to  a  colony  or  nucleus  containing 
only  young  bees  which  have  been  deprived  of  queen  for  eight 
or  ten  hours.  The  smaller  the  number  of  bees,  the  greater 
the  safety  of  the  queen ;  that  is  why  breeders  introduce  the 
virgin  queens  to  small  nuclei   (531). 

We  would  advise  novices  to  abstain  from  introducing  virgin 
queens,  until  they  become  expert  in  the  business  of  queen  rear- 
ing; the  introduction  of  unhatched  queen-cells  being  much 
more  easily  performed,  and  more  uniformly  successful. 

542,  In  introducing  queens  or  queen-cells  to  full  colonies 
during  the  swarming  season,  it  happens  veiy  often  that  the 
bees  also  raise  queen-cells  of  their  own  brood,  and  swarm  with 
the  queen  given  them  (465),  In  view  of  this,  the  Apiarist 
should  watch,  for  a  few  days,  the  colony  to  which  a  new 
queen    has   been    introduced. 

543,  In  hunting  for  a  queen,  it  is  necessary  to  remember 
that  she  is  on  the  brood  combs  unless  frightened  away.  If  the 
bees  are  not  greatly  disturbed,  an  Italian  queen  may  be  found 
within  five  minutes  after  opening  the  hive, 

A  queen  of  common  bees,  or  of  hybrids,  is  more  difficult  to 
find,  as  her  bees  often  rush  about  the  hive  as  soon  as  it  is 
opened.  If  she  cannot  be  found  on  the  combs,  and  the  hive 
is  populous,  it  is  best  to  shake  all  the  frames  on  a  sheet,  in 
front  of  an  empty  box,  and  secure  them  in  a  closed  hive,  out 


28S  QUEEX  REARING. 

of  the  reach  of  robbers,  until  the  search  is  over,  when  every- 
thing may  be  returned  to  its  proper  place. 

54-1.  After  a  queen  is  taken  from  a  cage,  the  bees  will 
run  in  and  out  of  it  for  a  long  time,  thus  proving  that  tliey 
recognize  her  peculiar  scent.  It  is  this  odor  which  causes 
them  to  iTin  inquiringly  over  our  hands,  after  we  have  caught 
a  queen,  and  over  any  spot  where  she  alighted  when  her 
swarm  came  forth. 

This  scent  of  the  queen  was  probably  known  in  Aristotle's 
time,  who  says:  "When  the  bees  swarm,  if  the  king  (queen) 
is  lost,  we  are  told  that  they  all  search  for  him,  and  follow 
him  with  their  sagacious  smell,  mitil  they  find  him."  Wild- 
man  says:  "The  scent  of  her  body  is  so  attractive  to  them, 
that  the  slightest  touch  of  her,  along  any  j^lace,  or  substance, 
Avill  attract  the  bees  to  it,  and  induce  them  to  pursue  any 
path  she  takes." 

The  intelligent  bee-keeper  has  now  realized,  not  only  how 
queens  may  be  raised  or  replaced,  by  the  use  of  the  movable- 
frame  hive,  but  how  any  operation,  which  in  other  hives  is 
performed  with  difficulty,  if  at  all,  is  in  this  rendered  easy 
and  certain.  Xo  hive,  however,  can  make  the  ignorant  or 
negligent  very  successful,  even  if  they  live  in  a  region  where 
the  climate  is  so  propitious,  and  the  honey  resources  so  abun- 
dant, that  the  bees  will  prosper  in  spite  of  mismanagement  or 
neglect. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Races  of  Bees. 

545.  The  honey-bee  is  not  indigenous  to  America.  Thom- 
as Jefferson,  m  his  "Notes  on  Virginia,"  says: 

' '  The  honey-bee  is  not  a  native  of  our  country.  Marcgrave 
indeed,  mentions  a  species  of  honey-bee  in  Brazil.  But  this  has 
no  sting,  and  is  therefore  different  from  the  one  we  have,  which 
resembles  perfectly  that  of  Europe.  The  Indians  concur  with 
us  in  the  tradition  that  it  was  brought  from  Europe;  but  when 
and  by  whom,  we  know  not.  The  bees  have  generally  extended 
themselves  into  the  country,  a  little  in  advance  of  the  white 
settlers.     The  Indians  therefore  call  them  the  white  man's  fly." 

"When  John  Eliot  translated  the  Scriptures  into  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Aborigines  of  North  America,  no  words  were 
found  expressive  of  the  terms  wax  and  honey.'  (A.  B.  J. 
July,  1866.) 

Longfellow,  in  his  "Song  of  Hiawatha."  in  describing  the 
advent  of  the  European  to  the  New  World,  makes  his  Indian 
warrior  say  of  the  bee  and  the' white  clover:  — 

"Wheresoe'er  they  move,  before  them 
Swarms  t'le  stinging  fly,  the  Ahmo, 
Swarms  the  bee,  the  honey-maker; 
Wheresoe'er  they  tread,  beneath  them 
Springs  a  flower  unknown  among  us. 
Springs  the  White  Man's  Foot  in  blossom." 

54(>.  According  to  the  quotations  of  the  A.  B.  J.,  common 
bees  were  imported  into  Florida,  by  the  Spaniards  previous 
to  1763j  for  tliey  were  first  noticed  in  West  Florida  in  that 
year.  They  appeared  in  Kentucky  in  1780,  in  New  York 
in  17P3,  and  West  of  the  Mississippi  in  1797. 

289 


290 


ftACES  OF  BEES. 


547.  "It  is  surprising  iu  what  countless  swarms  the  bees 
liave  overspread  the  far  West  within  but  a  moderate  number 
of  years.  The  Indians  consider  them  the  harbingers  of  the 
white  man,  as  the  buffalo  is  of  the  red  man,  and  say  that,  in 
proportion  as  the  bee  advances,  the  Indian  and  the  buffalo  re- 
tire      They  have  been  the  heralds  of  civilization,  steadily 


Fig.   112. 

AX     .\^PIARY    IX     CALIFORXIA. 

(From    the    ".American    Bee    .Tournal. 


preceding  it  as  it  advances  from  the  Atlantic  borders;  and 
some  of  the  ancient  settlers  of  the  West  pretend  to  give  the 
very  year  when  the  honey-bee  first  crossed  the  Mississippi.  At 
present  it  swarms  in  myriads  in  the  noble  groves  and  forests  that 
skirt  and  intersect  the  prairies,  and  extend  along  the  alluvial 
bottoms   of   the   rivers.      ]i"    seems   to   me   as   if  these   beautiful 


THE   BEE    IN    AMKKK.A.  1291 

regions  answer  literally  to  the  description  of  the  land  of  prum- 
Be — *a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey;'  for  the  rich  pas- 
turage of  the  prairies  is  calculated  to  sustain  herds  of  cattle 
as  countless  as  the  sands  upon  the  sea-shore,  while  the  flowers 
with  which  they  are  enamelled  render  them  a  very  paradise  for 
the  nectar-seeking  bee." — "Washington  Irving,  "Tour  on  the 
Prairies,"  Chap.  IX.   (1832). 

Many  Apiarists  contend  that  newly-settled  countries  arc 
most  favorable  to  the  bee ;  and  an  old  German  adage  runs 
thus:  — 

' '  Bells '  ding  dong, 
And  choral  song, 
Deter  the  bee 
From  industry: 
But  hoot  of  owl, 
And  'wolf '«  long  howl,' 
Incite  to  moil 
And  steady  toil. ' ' 

It  is  evident  that  the  bees  spread  Westward  very  rapidlj', 
and  to  this  day,  many  old  bee-men  can  be  found,  who  posi- 
tively assert  that  a  swarm  never  goes  Eastward,  even  after 
it  is  proven  to  them  that  they  usually  go  to  the  nearest  tim- 
ber. Our  United  States  are  now  occupied  by  the  honey-bee. 
from  Maine  to  Calfomia,  from  Texas  to  Montana,  wherever 
man  and  moisture  may  be  found.  The  irrigated  portions  of 
the  arid  West,  in  Arizona,  Colorado,  Utah,  Xevada,  have 
proven  an  eldorado  for  them. 

At  the  National  Convention  of  Bee-Keepers  held  at  Los 
Angeles,  California,  in  August,  1903,  Mr.  J.  S.  Harbison, 
gave  an  interesting  account  of  his  first  introduction  of  bees 
to  the  Pacific  Coast.  He  took  116  colonies,  in  1857,  from 
Newcastle,  Penna.,  to  Sacramento,  by  way  of  Panama  and 
the  Panama  railroad,  with  the  loss  of  only  six  colonies  and 
when  he  reached  California  with  them,  he  sold  readily  those 
that  he  wished  to  dispose  of,  at  $100  per  colony.  The  reader 
knows  how  successful  bee-culture  has  become  in  California 
since  that  early  date. 


292  RACES    OF    BEES. 

548.  Bees,  like  all  other  insects,  are  divided  scientifically 
into  genera,  species,  and  varieties. 

Aristotle  speaks  of  three  different  varieties  of  the  honey- 
bee, as  well  known  in  his  time.  The  best  variety  he  describes 
as  small,  and  round  in  size  and  shape,  and  variegated  in 
color. 

Virgil  (Georgica,  lib.  IV.,  98)  speaks  of  two  kinds  as  tlour- 
ishhig  in  his  time;  the  better  of  the  two  he  thus  describes: 

'  *  Elucent  aliap,  et  f  ulgore  coruscant, 
Ardentes  auro,  et  paribus  lita  corpora  guttis. 
Haec  potior  soboles;  bine  coeli  tempore  certo 
Dulcia  mella  premes. " 

"The  others  glitter,  and  their  variegated  bodies  shine  like 
drops  of  sprinkling  gold.  This  better  breed!  Thanks  to  them, 
if  the  weather  of  the  skij  is  certain,  you  icill  have  honey 
combs  to  press/' 

This  better  variety,  it  will  be  seen,  he  characterizes  as 
spotted  or  variegated,  and  of  a  beautiful  golden  color. 

549.  The  first  bee  introduced  into  America,  was  the  com- 
mon bee  of  Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  Western  Africa,  Api/ 
mellifica,  now  called  Apis  mellifera,  by  many.  "Mellihcs 
means  ''honey  maker,"  while  "Mellifera"  means  "honey  bear- 
er." It  is  usually  designated  under  the  name  of  black,  or  gray 
bee.  Both  names  are  appropriate,  since  the  race  varies  in 
shade,  according  to  localities.  In  the  greater  part  of  Africa, 
as  well  as  in  the  European  provinces  of  Turkey,  the  common 
bees  are  dark,  nearly  black.  In  other  places,  their  color  is 
grayish.  They  vary  in  size,  as  well.  According  to  some 
French  writers.,  the  bees  of  Holland  are  small,  and  denomi- 
nated "la  petite  Hollandaise"  (the  little  Hollander)  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Camiolan*  bees  are  quite  large.  We  have 
never  seen  queens  as  large  as  some  Caniiolans  which  we  im- 
ported some  thirty  j-ears  ago.    But,  in  spite  of  the  prolificness 

*  Carniola  is  a  province  of  Austria,  near  the  Adriatic,  but  on  the 
East  slope  of  the  mountains. 


THE    ITALIAX    BEE.  293 

and  general  good  reputation  of  this  race,  we  did  not  attempt 
to  propagate  it^  owing-  to  the  difficulty  of  detecting  their 
mating  with  the  common  bees,  since  they  are  almost  alike  m 
color. 

These  bees  have  since  been  bred  largely  in  the  U.  S.,  and  are 
l>raised  for  their  prolificness  and  peaceable  disposition, 

550.  Besides  the  common  bee,  there  are  a  great  many 
varieties.  The  best  known  are:  .  1st,  the  Ligurian,  Apis 
Ligustica,  so  named  by  Spinola,  because  he  found  it  first,  in 
the  part  of  Italy  called  Liguria.  The  Rev.  E.  W.  Gilman, 
of  Bangor,  Maine,  directed  the  writer's  attention  to  Spinola's 
''Inscctorum  Liguriae  species  novae  aut  rariores/'  from  which 
it  appears,  that  Spinola  accurately  described  all  the  peculiari- 
ties of  this  becj  which  he  found  in  Piedmont,  in  1805.  He 
fully  identified  it  with  the  bee  described  by  Aristotle. 

2nd.  The  Apis  fasciata  (banded  bee).  This  bee,  related  to 
the  Italian,  or  Ligurian,  which  has  yellov.-  bands  also,  is  found 
in  Egypt,  in  Arabia,  along  both  sides  of  the  Reel  Sea,  m  Syria, 
in  Cyprus  and  in  Caucasus. 

3d.  We  shall  mention  also  the  large  Apis  dorsata  of  South- 
ern Asia,  and  the  melipones  of  Brazil  and  Mexico. 

551.  The  Italian  bee.  Apis  Ligustica,  spoken  of  by  Aris- 
totle and  Virgil  as  the  best  kind,  still  exists  distinct  and  pure 
from  the  common  kind,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than  two  thou- 
sand years. 

The  great  superiority  of  this  race,  over  any  other  race 
known,  is  now  universally  acknowledged;  for  it  has  victo- 
riously stood  the  test  of  practical  bee-keepers,  side  by  side 
with  the  common  bee.  The  ultimate  superseding  of  the  com- 
mon bee  by  the  Italian  in  this  country  is  but  a  matter  of 
time.  Already,  hi  many  parts  of  Colorad9,  no  other  race 
is  to  be  found. 

55S.     The  following  facts  are  evident : 

1st.  The  Italian  bees  are  less  sensitive  to  cold  than  the 
t'ommon  kind.  2nd.  Their  queens  are  more  prolific.  3d. 
They  defend  their  hives  better  against  insects.     Moths  (802) 


294  RACES    OF    BEES. 

are  hardly  ever  found  in  their  combs,  while  they  are  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  combs  of  even  the  strongest  colonies  of 
common  bees.  Their  great  vigilance  is  due  to  the  mildness  of 
the  climate  of  Italy,  whose  Winters  never  destroy  the  moth. 
Having  to  defend  themselves  against  a  more  numerous  enemy, 
they  are  more  watchful  than  the  bees  of  colder  regions.  4th. 
They  are  less  apt  to  sting.  Not  only  are  they  less  apt,  but 
scarcely  are  they  inclined  to  sting,  though  they  will  do  so  if 
mtentionally  annoyed,  or  irritated,  or  improperly  treated. 

Spinola  speaks  of  the  more  peaceable  disposition  of  this 
bee;  and  Columella,  1800  years  ago,  has  noticed  the  same 
peculiarity,  describing  it  as  "'mitior  moribtis/'  (milder  in 
habits).  When  once  irritated,  however,  they  become  veiy 
cross. 

5th.  They  are  more  industrious.  Of  this  fact,  all  the 
results  go  to  confirm  Dzierzon's  statements,  and  satisfy  us 
of  the  superiority  of  this  kind  in  every  point  of  view.  6th. 
They  are  more  disposed  to  rob  than  common  bees,  and  more 
courageous  and  active  in  self-defense.  They  strive  on  all 
hands  to  force  their  way  into  colonies  of  common  bees;  but 
when  strange  bees  attack  their  hives,  they  fight  with  great 
fiercene^■s,  and  with   an   incredible  adroitness. 

Spinola  speaks  of  these  bees  as  "velociores  moliC — quicker 
in  their  motions  than  the  common  bees. 

They  however  sooner  grow  tired  of  hunting,  where  nothmg 
can  be  gained;  and  if  all  the  plunder  is  put  out  of  their 
reach,  they  will  give  up  the  attempt  at  robbing  (664)  more 
promptly  than  common  bees. 

7th.  Aside  from  their  peaceableness,  they  are  more  easily 
handled  than  the  common  bees,  as  they  cling  to  their  comKs 
and  do  not  rush  about,  or  cluster  here  and  there,  or  fall  to  the 
ground,  as  the  common  bees  do. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  this  species  of  the  honey- 
bee, so  much  more  productive  than  the  common  kind,  is  of 
verj'  great  value  in  all  sections  of  our  countiy.  Its  superior 
docility   makes   it  worthy   of  high   regard,   even   if  in   other 


THE    ITALIAN    BEE. 


29o 


respects  it  had  no  peculiar  merits.  Its  introduction  into  this 
country,  has  helped  to  constitute  the  new  era  in  bee-keeping, 
and  has  imparted  much  mterest  to  its  pursuit.  It  is  one  of 
the  causes  which  have  enabled  America  to  surpass  the  world 
in  the  production  of  honey. 

553.  Their  appearance  can  be  described  as  follows: 
"The  first  three  abdominal  rings  (fig.  113)  of  the  worker 
bee  are  transparent,  and  vary  from  a  dark  straw  or  golden 
color  to  the  deep  yellow  of  ochre.  These  rings  have  a  nar- 
row dark  edge  or  border,  so  that  the  yellow,  which  is  some- 
times   called    leather    color,  constitutes    the    gromid,    and    is 

seemmgly  barred  over  by  these  black 
edges.  This  is  most  distinctly  percepti- 
ble when  a  brood-comb,  on  which  bees 
are  densely  crowded,  is  taken  out  of  a 
hive,  or  when  a  bee  is  put  on  a  window. 
When  the  bee  is  full  of  honey  these 
rings  extend  and  slide  out  of  one  another, 
and  the  j^ellow  bands  show  to  better  ad- 
vantage, especially  if  the  honey  eaten  is 
of  a  light  color.  On  the  contrary,  during 
a  dearth  of  honey,  the  rings  are  drawn 
up,  or  telescoped  in  one  another,  and  the 
bee  hardly  looks  like  the  same  insect. 
This  peculiarity  has  annoyed  many  bee- 
keepers, who  imagmed  their  beautiful  bees 
had  suddenly  become  hybrids. 
In  doubtful  cases,  as  the  purity  of  Italian  bees  is  veiy 
important,  it  is  well  to  follow  the  advice  of  A,  I.  Root:  "If 
you  ar(3  undecided  in  regard  to  your  bees'  purity,  get  some 
of  the  bees  and  feed  them  all  the  honey  they  can  take;  now 
put  them  on  a  window,  and  if  the  band  C  (fig.  113)  is  nof 
plainly  visible,  call  them  hybrids.'^ 

554.  Aside  from  this  test,  their  tenacity  and  quietness 
on  the  comb,  while  handled,  are  infallible  signs  of  purity. 
We  have  repeatedly  carried  a  frame  of  brood  covered  with 


Fig.  113. 

ABDOMEN    OF    THE 
ITALIAN    BEE. 

(From  The  A  B  C  of 
Bee    Culture.) 


296  RACES  OF  BEES. 

pure  Italian  bees,  from  a  hive  to  the  house,  and  passed  the 
comb  from  hand  to  hand  among  visitors,  some  of  whom 
were  ladies,  without  a  single  bee  dropping  off,  or  attempting 
to  sting. 

555.  The  drones  and  the  queens  are  veiy  irreglar  in  mark- 
ings, some  being  of  a  very  bright  yellow  color,  others  almost 
as  dark  as  drones  or  queens  of  common  bees. 

"It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  an  Italian  queen,  impregnated 
hy  a  common  drone,  and  a  common  queen  impregnated  by  an 
Italian  drone,  do  not  produce  workers  of  a  uniform  intermediate 
cast,  or  hybrids;  but  some  of  the  workers  bred  from  the  eggs 
of  each  queen  will  be  purely  of  the  Italian,  and  others  as  purely 
of  the  common  race,  only  a  few  of  them,  indeed,  being  ap- 
parently hybrids.  Berlepsch  also  had  several  mismated  queens, 
which  at  first  produced  Italian  workers  exclusively,  and  after- 
wards common  workers  as  exclusively.  Some  such  queens  pro- 
duced fully  three-fourths  Italian  workers;  others,  common  work- 
ers in  the  same  proportion.  Nay,  he  states  that  he  had  one 
beautiful  orange-yellow  mismated  Italian  queen  which  did  not 
l)roduce  a  single  Italian  worker,  but  only  common  workers,  per- 
haps a  shade  lighter  in  color.  The  drones,  however,  produced 
by  a  mismated  Italian  queen  are  uniformly  of  the  Italian  race, 
and  this  fact,  besides  demonstrating  the  truth  of  Dzierzon's 
cheory,  (  133  )  renders  the  preservation  and  perpetuation  of  the 
Italian  race,  in  its  purity,  entirely  feasible  in  any  country 
where  they  may  be  introduced." — S.  Wagner. 

556.  The  Italian  bees  from  different  parts  of  Italy  are  of 
ditt'ereat  shades,  but  otherwise,  preserve  about  the  same 
characteristics  all  over  the  peninsula.  But  how  can  they  keep 
])ure,  since  there  are  common  bees  in  Europe f  A  glance  at 
the  map  will  answer  the  question.  Italy  is  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  water  or  snow-covered  mountahis,  which  offer  an 
insuperable  barrier  to  any  insects.  This  is  further  evidenced 
l)y  the  fact  that  the  bees  of  the  canton  of  Tessin  (Italian 
Switzerland)  are  Italians,  being  on  the  South  side  of  the  Alps, 
while  tliosc  (»f  the  canton  of  Uri   (German   Switzerland),  on 


THE    ITALIAN    BEE.  297 

the  other  side  of  the  mountains  and  only  a  few  miles  off,  are 
common  bees.* 

557.  The  importation  of  Italian  bees  to  another  country 
was  first  attempted  by  Capt.  Baldenstein. 

''Being  stationed  in  Italy,  during  part  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars,  he  noticed  that  the  bees,*  in  the  Lombardo-Venitian  dis- 
trict of  Valtelin,  and  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Conio,  differed  in 
color  from  the  common  kind,  and  seemed  to  be  more  industrious. 
At  the  close  of  the  war,  he  retired  from  the  army,  and  returned 
to  his  ancestral  castle,  on  the  Rhsetian  Alps,  in  Switzerland; 
and  to  occupy  his  leisure,  had  recourse  to  bee-culture,  which 
had  been  his  favorite  hobby  in  earlier  years.  While  studying 
the  natural  history,  habits,  and  instincts  of  these  insects,  he 
remembered  what  he  had  observed  in  Italy,  and  resolved  to 
procure  a  colony  from  that  country.  Accordingly,  he  sent  two 
men  thither,  who  purchased  one,  carried  it  over  the  mountains, 
to  his  residence,  in  September,  1843. 

''His  observations  and  inferences  impelled  Dzierzon — ^who 
had  previously  ascertained  that  the  cells  of  the  Italian  and  com- 
mon bees  were  of  the  same  size — to  make  an  effort  to  procure 
the  Italian  bee;  and,  bj'  the  aid  of  the  Austrian  Agricultural 
Society  at  Vienna  he  succeeded  in  obtaining,  late  in  February, 
1853,  a  colony  from  Mira,  near  Venice." — S.  Wagner. 

Some  of  the  Governments  of  Europe  have  long  ago  taken 
great  interest  in  disseminating  among  their  people  a  knowledge 
of  bee  culture. 

The  United  States  also  recognized  the  importance  of  our 
pursuit.  An  apiarian  department  has  been  established  and 
Mr.  Frank  Bentcn  was  sent  for  a  trip  around  the  world,  in 
1905,  to  investigate  the  value  of  the  bees  and  honey  pro- 
ducing plants  of  other  countries. 

558.  An  attempt  was  made  in  185ti,  by  l\Ir.  Wagner,  to 
import  the  Italian  bees  into  America;  but,  unfortunately,  the 
colonies  perished  on  the  voyage.     The  first  living  Italian  bees 

*  The  idea  that  select  Italian  bees  raised  in  America,  may  be  purer 
than  any  Italians  ever  imported,  has  been  gravely  discussed  by  some 
persons. 


29S  RACKS  OF  BEES. 

landed  on  this  continent  were  imported  in  the  Fall  of  1859 
by  Mr.  AVagner  and  Mr.  Richard  Colvin,  of  Baltimore,  from 
Dzierzon's  apiary.  Mr.  P.  G.  Mahan,  of  Philadelphia, 
brought  over  at  the  same  time  a  few  colonies.  In  the  Spring 
of  1860,  Mr.  S.  B.  Parsons,  of  Flushmg,  L.  I.,  imported  a 
number  of  colonies  from  Italy.  Mr.  William  G.  Rose,  of 
New  York,  in  1861,  im])orted  also  from  Italy.  Mr.  Colvin 
made  a  number  of  importations  from  Dzierzon's  apiaiy;  and 
in  the  Fail  of  1863  and  1864  Mr.  Langstroth  also  imported 
queens  from  the  same  apiary,  but  the  first  large  successful 
importations  were  made  by  Adam  Grimm  of  Wisconsin,  in 
1867,  from  the  apiaiy  of  Prof.  Mona  of  Bellinzona,  and  by 
us  in  1874,  from  the  apiarj-  of  Signor  Guiseppe  Fiorini  of 
Monselice,  Italy.  Smce  then,  Mr.  A.  I.  Root,  and  others, 
have  succeeeded  well  nearly  evei-y  season. 

This  valuable  variety  of  the  honey-bee  is  now  extensively 
disseminated  in  North  Amerijea. 

559.  The  Egyptian  bees  (Apis  fasciata)  are  smaller  and 
brighter  than  the  Italian  bee.  The  hairs  of  their  body  are 
more  whitish,  and  their  motions  are  quick  and  fly-like.  Their 
prolificness  is  great,  but  their  ill-disposition  has  caused  many 
who  have  tried  them  to  abandon  them. 

The  Cj'prian  bees  (a  sub-race  of  Apis  fasciata)  were  im- 
ported from  Cyprus  to  Europe  in  1872,  and  they  were  so 
much  praised  that,  in  1880,  two  enterprising  American  Apia- 
rists, Messrs.  D.  A.  Jones  and  Frank  Benton  made  a  trip  to 
Cyprus  and  the  Holy  Land,  and  brought  bees  from  both  coun- 
tries to  America. 

The  Cj'prian  bees  resemble  the  Italian  bees.  The  main 
difference  between  them,  m  appearance,  is  a  bright  yellow 
shield  on  the  thorax  of  the  Cj^prians  not  to  be  seen  in  the 
Italians,  and  the  j^ellow  rings  of  the  former  are  brighter, 
of  a  copper  color,  especially  under  the  abdomen.  Their 
drones  are  beautiful. 

Their  behavior  is  like  that  of  the  Egj'ptians;  quick  and 
ready,    they    promptly    assail    those   who    dare   handle   them. 


THb:    SYRIAN    BKE.  299 

Smoke  astonishes  but  does  not  subdue  them.  At  each  puff 
of  the  smoker  they  emit  a  sharp,  trilling  sound,  not  easily 
forgotten,  resembling  that  of  "meat  in  the  frying  pan,"  and  as 
soon  as  the  smoke  disappears,  they  are  again  on  the  watch, 
ready  to  pounce  on  any  enemy,  whether  man  or  beast,  bee 
or  moth.  Their  courage  and  great  prolificness  would  make 
them  a  very  desirable  race,  if  they  could  be  handled  safely. 

A  sliglit  mixture  of  this  race  with  the  Italian  improves  the 
latter  wonderfully  in  color  and  working  qualities. 

560.  The  Hoh'  Land  or  Syrian  bees  are  almost  similar 
in  looks  to  the  Egyptian,  these  two  countries  being  contigu- 
ous. Those  who  have  tried  them  do  not  agree  as  to  their 
behavior;  some  holding  them  to  be  very  peaceable,  others 
describing  them  as  very  cross.     We  have  never  tried  them. 

Among  the  different  races  of  Eastern  bees,  the  Caucasian 
are  cited  by  Vogel,  a  German,  as  of  such  mild  disposition, 
that  it  is  hard  to  get  them  to  sting.  Yet  it  is  said  that  these 
bees  defend  themselves  well  against  robber  bees.  This  is  con- 
firmed by  Mr.  Benton,  who  has  imported  them  into  the  U.  S. 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

According  to  Yogel,  they  resemble  the  Syrian  bees,  having 
also  the  shield  of  the  Cyprians.  It  would  seem  that  these 
bees  exist  in  the  temperate  zone  of  Asia,  from  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Himalayas,  for  Dr.  Dubini,  in  his 
book,  writes  that  they  were  found  at  the  foot  of  these  moun- 
tains.* 

561.  According  to  an  article  in  the  "Scientific  Review'' 
of  England,  although  bees  have  been  sent  from  this  country 
and  Europe,  to  Australia,  there  is  an  Australian  native  bee, 
which  builds  its  nest  on  the  Eucalyptus.  These  bees  gather 
immense  quantities  of  a  kind  of  honey  which,  although  veiy 
sweet,  can  be  used  as  medicine,  to  replace  the  cod-liver  oil, 
used  with  so  much  repugnance  by  consumptives. 

*  Some  apiarists  assert  that  there  are  two  varieties  of  this  bee,  which 
they  name  Apis  caucasia  aurea  and  Apis  nigra  argentea.  So  it  would 
seem  from  the  quotation  of  a  catalog  of  a  Russian  apiarist  and  queen 
breeder  mentioned  by  Giraud  Freres  in  A.  B.  J.  of  .February  1st,  1906. 


^00  RACES    OF    BEES. 

562.  Apis  dorsuta,  the  largest  bee  known,  lives  in  the 
jungles  of  India.  Mr.  Benton  attempted  to  import  this  bee 
at  great  expense  and  danger,  but  only  succeeded  in  bringing 
one  colony  to  Syria,  where  it  died.  Mr.  Vogel  tried  also  to 
bring  some  of  them  to  Germany  without  success.  At  all 
events  further  attempts  at  importing  or  domesticating  these 
bees  would  be  so  expensive-,  that  private  enterprise  will  be 
balked  by  the  task.  Besides  Apis  dorsata,  tw^o  other  kinds 
exist  in  India,  Apis  florea  and  Apis  Indica.  The  latter  is 
cultivated  by  the  natives  with  good  results.  Both  are  smaller 
than  our  common  bee. 

563.  Another  race  of  bees,*  the  MeliiK>ne.  is  found  in 
Brazil  and  Mexico.  More  than  twelve  varieties  r»f  these  have 
been  described,  all  without  stings. 

Huber,  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy,  received 
a  nest  of  them,  but  the  bees  died  before  reaching  Geneva.  Mr. 
Dror>",  while  at  Bordeaux,  France,  was  more  successful.  One 
of  his  friends  sent  him  a  colony  of  Melipones,  and  he  pub- 
lished in  the  "Rucher  du  Sud-Oucst''  some  \ery  curious  facts 
concerning  them.  The  cells  containing  the  stores  of  honey 
and  pollen  are  not  placed  near  those  intended  for  brood,  but 
higher  in  the  hive;  they  are  as  large  as  pigeon  eggs,  and 
attached  in  clusters  to  the  walls  of  the  hive.  The  brood  cells 
are  placed  horizontally  in  rows  of  several  stories.  The  work- 
ers do  not  nurse  the  brood,  but  fill  the  cells  with  food,  on 
which  the  queen  lays.  The  cells  are  then  closed  till  the  young 
bees  emers-e  from  them. 


*  These   bees    are    scientifically   classified    as   belonging   to    a   differenc 
genus  of  Apidae. 


CHAPTER  X. 

The  Apiary. 
Location. 

564.  Any  uiie  can  keep  bees,  successfully,  if  he  has  a 
liking-  for  this  pursuit  and  is  not  too  timid  to  follow  the 
directions  given  in  this  treatise.  Even  ladies  can  manage 
a  large  apiary  successfully,  with  but  little  help.  Miss  Emma 
AVilson,  sister-in-law  of  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  is  an  expert  apiarist 
and  does  a  great  portion  of  the  Avork  iii  two  large  apiaries  of 
several  hundred  colonies. 

Almost  any  locality  will  yield  a  surplus  of  honey  in  aver- 
age seasons.  The  late  Mr.  Chas.  F.  Muth  of  Cincinnati,  with 
22  colonies  of  bees,  on  the  roof  of  his  house,  in  the  heart  of 
this  large  city,  harvested  a  surplus  honey  yield  of  198  lbs. 
per  colony  in  one  season.  Mr.  Muth  info:cnied  us  that  this 
surplus  was  collected  from  white  clover  blossoms  in  2G  days. 

565.  But  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  honey  re- 
sources of  the  country  is  highly  important  to  those  desirous 
of  engaging  largely  in  bee-culture.  While,  in  some  localities, 
bees  will  accumulate  large  stores,  in  others,  only  a  mile  or 
two  distant,  they  may  yield  but  a  small  profit. 

*  *  While  Huber  resided  at  Cour.  and  afterwards  at  Vevey,  his 
bees  suffered  so  much  from  scanty  pasturage,  that  he  could 
only  presenve  them  by  feeding,  although  stocks  that  were  but 
two  miles  from  him  were,  in  each  case,  storing  their  hives 
abundantly. ' ' — Bevan. 

Those  desirous  of  becoming  specialists  will  find  the  subject 
of  location  and  yield  further  treated  in  the  chapter  on  Pas- 
turage and  Overstocking  (698). 

566.  Inexperienced  persons  will  seldom  find  it  profitable 
to  begin   bee-keeping   on   a   large   scale.      By   using  movable- 

301 


302 


THE    APIARY. 


LOCATION.  303 

frame  (286)  hives,  they  can  rapidlj^  hicrease  their  stock 
after  they  have  acquired  skill,  and  have  ascertained,  not 
simph'  that  money  can  be  made  by  keeping  bees,  but  that  tho/ 
can  make  it. 

While  large  profits  can  be  realized  by  careful  and  expei'i- 
enced  bee-keepers,  those  who  are  otherwise  will  be  almost 
sure  to  find  their  outlay  result  only  in  vexatious  losses.  An 
apiary  neglected  or  mismanaged  is  worse  than  a  farm  over- 
grc^^^l  with  weeds  or  exhausted  by  ignorant  tillage;  for  the 
land,  by  prudent  management,  may  again  be  made  fertile, 
but  the  bees,  when  once  destroyed,  are  a  total  loss.  Of  all 
farm  pursuits  bee-culture  requires  the  greatest  skill,  and  it 
may  well  be  called  a  business  of  details. 

567.  Wherever  the  apiary  is  established,  great  pains 
should  be  taken  to  protect  the  bees  against  high  winds.  Their 
hives  should  be  placed  where  they  will  not  be  annoyed  by  foot 
passengers  or  cattle^  and  should  never  be  veiy  near  Avherc 
horses  must  stand  or  pass.  If  managed  on  the  swarming 
plan,  it  is  very  desirable  that  they  should  be  in  full  sight 
of  the  rooms  most  occupied,  cr  at  least  where  the  sound  cf 
their  swarming  will  be  easily  heard. 

In  the  Xorthern  and  Middle  States,  the  hives  should  have 
a  South-Eastern.  Southern,  or  South- Western  exposure,  to 
give  the  bees  the  benefit  of  the  sun,  when  it  will  be  most  con- 
ducive to  their  welfare. 

568.  The  plot  occupied  by  the  Apiary  should  be  grassy, 
mowed  frequently,  and  kept  free  from  weeds. 

Sand,  gravel,  saw-dust*  or  coal  cinders,  spread  in  front  of 
the  hive,  will  prevent  the  growing  of  grass  in  their  (343) 
immediate  vicinity,  and  be  a  great  help  to  those  overladen 
bees,  that  fall  to  the  ground  before  reaching  the  entrance. 

Hives  are  too  often  placed  where  many  bees  perish  by  fall- 
ing into  dirt,  or  among  the  tall  weeds  and  grass,  where  spiders 
and  toads  find  their  choice  lurking-places. 


*  Sawdust  is  perhaps  not   very  safe,   owing   to   danger  of  fire  from  the 
smokers,    in   very   dry   weather. 


304 


TUK    APIART. 


A  geutle  slope  soutli\\ard  will  help  to  set  the  hives  as  they 
should  be,  slanting-  toward  the  entrance  (326,  327). 


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5(>9.  They  should  be  placed  on  separate  stands,  entirely 
independent  of  one  another,  and,  whenever  practicable,  room 
should  be  left  for  the  Apiarist  to  pass  around  each  hive.     We 


LOCATION. 


305 


prefer   to   place   tliem   in   rows   sixteen    feet   apart,   with   the 
hives  about  six  feet  apart   in   the  rows.     This  isolates  each 


hive  completeh^  and,  while  handling  one  colony,  the  Apiar- 
ist is  not  in  danger  of  being  stung  by  the  bees  of  another. 
The  bees  are  also  less  likely  to  enter  the  wrong  hives  (503). 


[HHi  THk.    AflAKl, 


Conrpf]  Apiaries. 

570.  Covered  apiaries,  unless  built  at  great  expense, 
afford  little  protection  against  extreme  heat  or  cold,  and 
greatly  increase  the  risk  of  losing  the  queens  (503)  and  the 
young  bees.  The  weak  colonies  are  always  the  losers,  lor 
their  young  bees,  hi  returning  from  their  first  trip  (173), 
are  attracted  by  the  noise  of  other  hives  closely  adjoining, 
and  prove  the  truth  of  the  French  proverb  "La  pierre  va 
toujours  au  tas,"  (the  stone  always  goes  to  the  heap). 

When  hives  must  stand  close  together,  thej'  should  be  of 
different  colors.  Even  varying  the  color  of  the  blocks  will 
be  of  gi'eat  usefulness. 

John  Mills,  in  a  work  published  at  London,  in  1766,  gives 
(p.  93)  the  following  directions:  — "Forget  not  to  paint  the 
mouths  of  your  colonies  with  different  colors,  as  red,  white, 
blue,  yellow,  &c.,  in  form  of  a  half-moon,  or  square,  that  the 
bees  may  the  better  know  their  own  homes." 

Covered  apiaries  are  common  in  Germany  and  Italy;  their 
only  quality  is  that  of  being  thief  proof,  when  shut  and 
locked.  But  such  structures,  especially  when  several  stories 
high,  cannot  easily  shelter  top-opening  hives. 

571.  Probably  the  most  convenient  covered  apiaries  are 
simple  sheds,  facing  South,  and  open  in  front  during  the 
Summer  and  warm  daj^s  of  Winter.  House  apiaries,  in 
which  the  hives  are  placed  in  several  stories,  facing  everj- 
direction,  are  worse  than  nothing.  Their  only  qualitj^  is  to 
be  ornamental  and  costly. 

572.  In  the  Summer,  no  place  is  so  congenial  to  bees  as 
the  shade  of  trees,  if  it  is  not  too  dense,  or  the  branches  so 
low  as  to  interfere  with  their  flight.  As  the  weather  becomes 
cool,  they  can,  if  necessary,  be  moved  to  any  more  desirable 
Winter  location.  If  colonies  are  moved  in  the  line  of  their 
flight,  and  a  short  distance  at  a  time,  no  loss  of  bees  will  be 
incurred :  but,  if  moved  a  few  yards,  all  at  once,  many  will 


COVERED    APIAKIES. 


307 


30S  THE    APIARY. 

l)e  lost.  A  slanting  board  placed  in  front  of  the  hive,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  bees  from  flying  in  straight  line  from  the 
entrance  to  the  field,  will  incite  them  to  mark  the  change 
of  their  position.  By  a  gradual  process,  the  hives  in  a  small 
apiary  may,  in  the  Fall,  be  brought  into  a  narrow  compass, 
so  that  they  can  be  easily  sheltered  from  the  bleak  Winter 
winds.  In  the  Spring,  they  may  be  gradually  returned  to  their 
old  positions. 

By  removing  the  strongest  colonies  in  an  apiary  the  first 
day,  and  others  not  so  strong  the  next,  and  continuing  the 
process  until  all  were  removed,  we  have  safely  changed  the 
location  of  an  apiary,  when  compelled  to  move  bees  in  the 
working  season.  On  the  removal  of  the  last  hive,  but  few 
bees  returned  to  the  old  spot.  The  change,  as  thus  conducted, 
strengthened  the  weaker  colonies,  but  we  would  advise  bee- 
keepers to  locate  their  hives  in  as  permanent  a  position  as 
possible,  as  this  moving  is  not  practical,  especially  with  a 
large  number  of  colonies.  Those  who  do  not  winter  their 
bees  in  the  cellar,  can  easily  protect  them  on  their  Summer 
stand.     (635.) 

If  the  hives  have  to  be  placed  in  an  exposed  location  with- 
out shade,  it  is  well  to  protect  them  with  roofs.  A  roof  will 
be  found  highly  economical,  as  it  not  only  sheds  the  rain, 
but  wards  ofl;  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

S'i'S.  The  beginner  will  ordinarily  find  it  best  to  stock  his 
apiary  with  swarms  of  the  current  year,  thus  avoiding,  until 
he  can  prepare  himself  to  meet  them,  the  perplexities  which 
often  accompany  either  natural  or  artificial  swarming.  If 
new  swarms  are  purchased,  unless  they  are  large  and  early, 
they  miay  only  prove  a  bill  of  expense.  If  old  colonies  are 
purchased,  such  only  should  be  selected  as  are  healthy  and 
populous.  If  removed  after  the  working  season  has  begun, 
they  should  be  brought  from  a  distance  of  at  least  two 
miles  (13). 

If  the  bees  are  not  all  at  home  when  the  hive  is  to  be  re- 
moved, blow  a  little  smoke  into  its  entrance,  to  cause  those 


TRANSFERRING.  309 

within  to  fill  themselves  with  honey,  and  to  prevent  them 
from  leaving  for  the  fields.  Kepeat  this  process  from  time  to 
time,  and  in  half  an  hour  nearly  all  will  have  returned.  If 
any  are  clustered  on  the  outside,  they  may  be  driven  within 
by  smoke. 

The  best  time  to  buy  full  colonies  of  bees,  is  Spring.  A 
cool  day  may  be  selected,  in  which  to  move  them,  as  the  bees 
are  not  flying,  none  can  be  lost.  In  the  present  thriving 
state  of  bee-keeping,  colonies  of  pure  Italian  bees  (551)  in 
movable-frame  hives  can  usually  be  bought  at  veiy  reason- 
able figures.  If  the  Apiarist's  means  are  veiy  limited,  black 
bees  (549)  in  old  style  box-hives  may  prove  the  cheapest, 
if  they  can  be  fomid.  But  they  should  be  promptly  trans- 
ferred into  more  practical  hives,  and  italianized;  these  manipu- 
lations will  help  to  give  to  the  novice  the  practice  which  he 
lacks.  Italian  bees  and  movable-frame  hives  are  now  a  sine 
qua  non  of  success. 

No  colony  should  be  purchased,  unless  it  has  brood  in  all 
stages,  showing  that  it  has  a  healthy  queen.  For  transport- 
ing bees,  see  (587,  603). 

Transferring  Bees  from  Common  to  Movable-Frame 
Hr^s. 

574.  This  process  may  be  easily  effected  whenever  the 
weather  is  warm  enough  for  bees  to  fly.* 

It  has  sometimes  been  done  m  Winter,  for  purposes  of 
experiment,  by  removing  the  bees  into  a  warm  room,  but  the 
best  time  for  it,  is  when  the  bees  have  the  least  honey,  at  the 
begmning  of  the  fruit  bloom.     If  it  can  be  done  on  a  warm 


*  It  may  be  remarked,  by  some  reader,  that  the  number  of  box  hives 
in  existence  in  the  United  States  is  now  so  very  limited,  that  a  page 
or  two  on  this  subject  is  a  waste,  but  in  a  protracted  experience  we 
have  found  that  even  the  most  practical  Apiarist  may  occasionally  be 
compelled  to  hive  bees  in  any  kind  of  box.  It  is  therefore  well  to 
know  how  to  transfer  them  safely  to  movable-frame  hives,  without 
destroying  either  the  worker  combs  or  the  brood. 


310  THE    APIART. 

day.  when  they  are  at  work,  there  will  be  but  little  danger 
from  robbers  (664). 

It  is  conducted  as  follows:  Have  in  readiness  a  box— 
which  we  shall  call  the  forcing  ?>ox— whose  diameter  is  about 
the  same  with  that  of  the  hive  from  w^hich  you  intend  to 
drive  the  swarm.  Smoke  the  hive,  lift  it  from  its  bottom- 
board  without  the  slightest  jar,  turn  it  over,  and  carefully 
carry  it  off  about  a  rod,  as  bees,  if  disturbed,  are  much  more 
inclined  to  be  peaceable,  when  removed  a  short  distance  from 
their  familiar  stand.  If  the  hive  is  gently  placed  upside 
down  on  the  gromid,  scarcely  a  bee  will  fly  out,  and  there  will 
be  little  danger  of  bemg  stung.  The  timid  and  inexperienced 
should  protect  themselves  with  a  bee-veil,  and  may  blow  more 
smoke  among  them,  as  soon  as  the  hive  is  inverted.  After 
placing  it  on  the  ground,  the  forcing-box  must  be  put  over 
it.  If  smooth  inside,  it  should  have  slats  fastened  one-third 
of  the  distance  from  the  top,  to  aid  bees  in  clustering.  Some 
Apiarists  place  the  box  slanting  on  the  hive,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  see  the  bees  climbing.  This  method,  called  open  driving,  is 
a  little  slower,  but  it  maj-  give  the  operator  the  chance  of 
seeing  the  queen;  when  the  driving  can  be  considered  as  done. 

575.  As  soon  as  the  Aj^iarist  has  confined  the  bees,  he 
should  place  an  empty  hive— which  we  call  the  decoy-hive 
—upon  their  old  stand,  which  those  returning  from  the  fields 
may  enter,  instead  of  dispersing  to  other  hives,  to  meet,  per- 
haps, with  a  most  ungracious  reception.  As  a  general  rule, 
however,  a  bee  -with  a  load  of  honey  or  bee-bread,  after  the 
extent  of  her  resources  is  ascertained,  is  pretty  sure  to  be 
welcomed  by  any  hive  to  which  she  may  carry  her  treasure; 
while  a  povertj'-stricken  unfortunate  that  presumes  to  claim 
their  hospitality  is,  usually,  at  once  destroyed.  The  one 
meets  with  as  flattering  a  reception  as  a  wealthy  gentleman 
proposing  to  take  up  his  abode  in  a  country  village,  while 
the  other  is  as  much  an  object  of  dislike  as  a  poor  man,  who 
bids  fair  to  become  a  public  charge. 

If  there   are   in   the   apiaiy   several    old   colonies   standing 


TRAXSFERRING. 


311 


close  together,  it  is  desirable,  in  performing  this  operation, 
that  the  decoy-hive,  and  the  forcing-box,  should  be  of  the 
same  shape  and  even  color  with  that  of  the  parent-stock.  If 
they  arc  very  unlike,  and  the  returning  bees  attempt  to  enter 
a  neighboring  hive,  because  it  resembles  their  old  home,  the 
adjoining  hives  should  have  sheets  thrown  over  them,  to  hide 
them  from  the  l)ees,  until  the  operation  is  completed. 


mmm 

''''m-ji 

T  ■■„. 

i       H   *-■■ 

Fig.    118. 

HOVSK   APIARY    OF   MR.   BLATT   IN    SVVITZERLAXD. 

576.  To  return  to  our  imprisoned  bees:  their  hive  should 
be  beaten  smartly  with  the  palm%  of  the  hands,  or  two  small 
rods,  on  the  sides  to  which  the  combs  are  attached,  so  as  to 
run  no  risk  of  loosening*  them.     These  "rappings,"  although 

*  There  is  little  danger  of  loosening  the  combs  of  an  old  colony,  but 
the  greatest  caution  is  necessary  when  the  combs  of  a  hive  are  new. 
If,  in  inverting  such  a  hive,  the  broad  sides  of  the  combs,  instead  of 
their  edges,  are  inclined  downwards,  the  heat,  and  weight  of  the  bees, 
may  loosen  the  combs,   and   ruin    the  colony. 


312  THE    APIARY. 

not  of  a  very  "spiritual*'  character,  produce,  nevertheless,  a 
decided  effect  upon  the  bees.  Their  first  impulse,  if  no  smoke 
were  used,  would  be  to  sally  out,  and  wreak  their  vengeance 
on  those  who  thus  rudely  assail  their  honied  dome;  but  as 
soon  as  they  inhale  its  fumes,  and  feel  the  terrible  concussion 
of  their  once  stable  abode,  a  sudden  fear,  that  they  are  to  be 
driven  from  their  treasures,  takes  possession  of  them.  De- 
termined to  prepare  for  this  unceremonious  writ  of  ejection, 
by  carrying  off  what  they  can,  each  bee  oegins  to  lay  in  a 
supply,  and  in  about  five  minutes,  all  are  filled  to  their  utmost 
capacity.  A  prodigious  humming  is  now  heard,  as  they  begin 
to  mount  mto  the  upper  box;  and  in  about  fifteen  minutes 
from  the  time  the  rappmg  began— if  it  has  been  continued 
with  but  slight  intermissions— the  mass  of  bees,  with  their 
queen,  will  hang  clustered  in  the  forcing-box,  like  any  natural 
swarm,  and  may,  at  the  j^roper  time,  be  readily  shaken  out  on 
a  sheet,  in  front  of  their  mtended  hive. 

Now  put  the  forcing  box  on  their  old  stand,  and  cany  the 
parent-hive  to  some  place  where  you  cannot  be  annoyed  by 
other  bees. 

577.  It  is  important  to  make  sure  that  the  queen  is  re- 
moved, as  she  might  be  injured  in  the  transfer  of  comb. 
Her  presence  among  the  driven  bees  can  be  ascertained  in 
a  few  minutes,  by  the  quietness  of  their  behavior,  or  by  the 
eggs  which  she  drops  on  the  bottom-board,  and  which  can 
easily  be  seen  if  a  black  cloth  is  spread  under  the  forcing 
box  (155). 

If  the  queen  is  nut  with  the  bees,  a  few  will  come  out  and 
run  about,  as  if  anxiously  searchmg  for  something  they  have 
lost.  The  alarm  is  rapidly  communicated  to  the  whole  colony ; 
the  explorers  are  reinforced,  the  ventilators  suspend  theiv 
operations,  and  soon  the  air  is  filled  with  bees.  If  they  can- 
not find  the  queen,  they  return  to  their  old  stand,  and  if  no 
hive  is  there,  will  soon  enter  one  of  the  adjoining  colonies. 
If  their  queen  is  restored  to  them  soon  after  they  miss  her, 
those  running  out  of  the  hive  will   make  a  half-circle,  and 


TKA\.SFt:RHiN<i.  313 

return;  the  joyful  uews  is  (juic.kiy  conimuuicated  to  those 
on  the  wing,  Avho  forthwith  alight  and  enter  the  hive;  all 
appearance  of  agitated  running  about  on  the  outside  of  the 
hive  ceases,  and  ventilation,  with  its  joyful  hum,  is  again  re- 
sumed. To  witness  these  interesting  proceedings,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  catch  the  queen,  and  keep  her  until  she  is  missed 
by  her  colony.  For  greater  security,  she  should  be  confined 
in  a  queen  cage   (536)   during  the  experiment. 

If  the  queen  has  not  left  the  old  hive,  it  is  safer  to  return 
the  bees  and  to  resume  the  driving  at  another  time. 

578.  To  transfer  the  comb,  have  on  hand  tools  for  pry- 
ing off  a  side  of  the  hive;  a  large  knife  for  cutting  out  the 
combs;  vessels  for  the  honey;  a  table  or  board,  on  which 
to  lay  the  brood  combs;  and  water  for  washing  off,  from 
time  to  time,  the  honey  which  will  stick  to  your  hands. 

Have  also  a  number  of  pieces  of  wire,  Xo.  16,  cut  a  little 
longer  than  the   frame,   and  bent  on  the  ends  in  this  shape 

I I   to  be  driven  into  the  wood  of     the  frame,  and  to  hold 

the  combs  in  place.  Let  a  certain  number  of  frames  be  in 
readiness,  with  three  or  four  of  these  wires  fastened  on  one 
side,  and  lay  them  on  the  table,  idre-sidc  down.  You  must 
also  have  your  movable-frame  hive  in  readiness  near  the 
table,  with  an  extracting  pan  (770)  under  it,  instead  of  a 
bottom-board,  to  receive  what  honey  may  drip.  All  this 
must  be  ready  before  disturbing  the  bees. 

579.  Having  selected  the  icorker-comhs,  carefully  cut  them 
rather  large,  so  that  they  will  just  crowd  into  the  frames, 
and  retain  their  places  in  their  natural  position  (fig.  46), 
until  the  bees  have  time  to  fasten  them. 

Xow  tack  as  many  wires  over  them  as  may  be  necessary 
to  hold  them  securely',  and  hang  them  in  the  hive.  Drone 
combs  should  invariably  be  melted  into  wax.  If  drone-brood 
is  found,  it  can  be  fed  to  young  chickens,  who  are  veiy  fond 
of  the  larvae.  The  bottom-board  should  be  put  under  the 
hive  just  before  carrying  it  out. 

When  the  hive  is  thus  prepared,  the  bees  may  be  put  into 


314 


THE    APlARr. 


it  and  confined,  water  being  given  to  them,  until  they  have 
time  to  make  all  secure  asrainst  robbers  (664). 


TRANSFERkLNG  315 

If  there  is  danger  of  robbers,  it  is  preferable  not  to  put 
the  bees  into  the  hive  till  late  in  the  afternoon.  They  should 
be  shaken  in  front  of  the  new  hive  on  a  sheet  (427)  like  a 
natural  swarm. 

When  the  weather  is  cool,  the  transfer  should  be  made  in 
a  warm  room,  to  prevent  the  brood  from  being  fatallj^  chilled. 
An  expert  Apiarist  can  complete  the  whole  operation— from 
the  driving  of  the  bees  to  the  returning  of  them  to  their  new 
hive— in  about  an  hour,  and  with  the  loss  of  very  few  bees, 
old  or  young. 

580.  When  transferring  in  early  Spring,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  worker-brood  (168)  is  of  great  value; 
and  not  the  least  bit  of  it  should  be  neglected  or  wasted 
minecessarily.  After  a  week,  or  more,  according  to  the 
season,  the  hive  may  be  opened  and  the  fastenings  removed. 

Let  not  the  novice,  however,  think  that  transferring  bees 
is  a  task  that  requires  but  little  skill.  He  who  transfers  suc- 
cessfully a  larger  number  of  colonies  may  he  called  an  expert 
in  handling  bees. 

The  process,  as  it  has  been  conducted  by  careless  Apia- 
rists, has  resulted  in  the  wanton  sacrifice  of  thousands  of 
colonies. 

581.  For  the  benefit  oi:  those  who  are  timid  in  manipu- 
lations, Ave  will  give  Mr.  Jas.  Heddon's  method  for  trans- 
ferring, (page  562  of  "Gleanings,"  1885).  About  swarming 
time  Mr.  Heddon  drives  the  old  queen  and  a  majority  of  the 
bees  into  the  forcing-box,  he  then  removes  the  old  hive  a  few 
feet  back,  and  places  the  new  hive  with  frames  full  of  foun- 
dation on  its  standi  and  "rans  in"  the  forced  swarm.  It 
would  be  well  to  return  a  part  of  the  bees  to  the  old  hive,  as 
its  brood  might  be  chilled  if  the  weather  becomes  cool. 

Twenty-one  days  after  the  transfer  of  the  bees,  he  drives 
the  old  hive  clean  of  all  its  bees,  uniting  them  with  the  former 
drive.  As  the  worker-brood  of  the  old  hive  is  all  hatched, 
there  is  nothing  left  in  it  but  the  combs  and  the  honey,  which 
can  be  transferred  at  leisure  in  cool  weather,  or,  the  honey 


;il()  TIIK    APIARY. 

may    be    exlraeU'cl     (749),    and    the    eoinb    melted    iiilci    wax 
(858). 

Out-Apiaries. 

582.  When  an  Apiarist  wishes  to  make  bee-culture  his 
special  occupation,  he  should  expect  to  keep  bees  in  more  than 
one  location.  If  he  owns  more  than  120  colonies,  we  would  ad- 
vise his  establishing  an  Out- Apiary.  It  is  true  that  there  are 
manj'  drawbacks  to  the  cultivation  of  bees  four  or  five  miles 
off,  but  there  are  also  some  advantages.  The  crop  sometimes 
fails  in  one  locality,  and  is  veiy  good  in  another  a  short  dis- 
tance away.  One  apiaiy  may  be  in  a  hilly  country,  where 
white  clover  abounds,  and  another  on  low  lands,  where  Fall 
l)lossoms  never  fail.  It  is  well  — according  to  a  familiar 
proverb— not  to  "put  all  your  eggs  in  one  basket." 

In  many  years'  practice  of  keeping  bees  in  five  or  six  dif- 
ferent apiaries,  occupying  a  range  of  country  about  twenty 
miles  in  widths  we  have  found  out  that  the  crop  will  vaiy 
greatly  in  a  few  miles,  owing  to  the  different  flora  of  the 
various  localities,  and  more  especially  to  the  gi^eater  or  less 
amount  of  rain-fall  at  the  proper  time.  We  have  also  learaed 
that  an  apiaiy^  placed  near  a  large  body  of  water  (the  Mis- 
sissippi), will  produce  less  honey  than  one  a  mile  or  two 
from  it^  owing  to  the  smaller  area  of  pasturage  in  reach  of 
the  bees.* 

583.  In  establishing  an  Out-Apiary  on  some  farmer's 
land,  the  following  must  be  taken  into  consideration:  Select 
a  farm  on  which  a  grove  or  an  orchard  is  near  the  house, 
some  distance  from  the  road.  The  place  ought  to  be,  at  least, 
three  miles  in  a  bee-line  from  your  own  bee- farm.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  it  should  be  more  than  four  miles  away.  Mr. 
J.  M.  Hambaugh,  at  Spring,  111.,  harvested .  altogether  differ- 

*  Some  apiarists,  among  them  Mr.  E.  W.  Alexander,  of  Delanson,  N. 
v.,  keep  a  very  large  number  of  bees  in  one  apiary,  the  above  named 
apiarist  keeping  upwards  of  seven  hundred  colonies  with  great  success 
in  one  spot.  This,  however,  will  succeed  only  in  extraordinary  loca- 
tions where  almost  the  entire  territory  is  occupied  with  honey-pro- 
ducing plants.      Such  locations  are  rare. 


OUT- API  ARIES.  317 

ent  yields  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  from  two  apiaries 
only  two  and  a  half  miles  apart.  This  agrees  with  our  oft 
repeated  experience  in  apiaries  three  or  four  miles  apart. 

Locate  your  bees  with  some  careful  man.  Do  not  trust 
a  farmer  who  lets  his  fences  fallj  who  leaves  his  mower  in 
the  yard  over  Winter,  or  puts  his  cows  in  his  orchard.  You 
Avill  never  rest  easy,  if  you  think  that  some  of  your  hives 
may  be  upset  any  day  by  a  vagrant  cow. 

Do  not  put  your  bees  on  land  which  is  tenanted.  Let  them 
be  placed  at  some  responsible  farmei-^s  own  home,  for  a  tenant 
may  leave  on  short  notice,  and  you  cannot  remove  your  bees 
at  all  seasons, 

584.  The  terms  usually  made  by  us  for  a  bee  location 
are  as  follows:  The  farmer  furnishes  us  the  apiaiy  gromid, 
one  spare  room  during  extracting,  and  a  shed  or  a  corner 
in  some  empty  room  for  our  hives,  combs,  and  fixtures.  He 
also  furnishes  board  for  the  Apiarist  and  his  help  while  at 
work.  In  exchange,  he  gets  one-fifth  of  the  honey,  and 
seventy-five  cents  for  eveiy  natural  swarm  he  harvests.  His 
sole  duties  are,  hiving  swarms,  and  seeing  that  no  accidents 
happen  to  the  apiary.  When  bees  are  rmi  for  extracted 
honey,  the  number  of  natural  swarms  is  very  limited.  We 
can  always  find  more  bee  locations  than  we  want.  In  fact, 
Ave  have  never  yet  met  a  farmer  who  refused  to  take  bees  on 
such  terms. 

We  prefer  giving  the  farmer  a  share  of  the  crop,  to  giving 
him'  a  stated  sum  for  ground  rent,  etc.,  as  some  of  our  lead- 
ing bee-keepers  do,  because  we  thus  give  him  an  interest  in 
our  success^  and  he  is  more  likely  to  pay  attention  to  our 
bees,  and  to  produce  crops  that  Avill  yield  some  honey.  Asso- 
ciation of  interests  means  progress,  peace,  and  harmony. 

585.  Six  apiaries,  containing  in  all  600  colonies,  are 
probably  the  greatest  number  that  one  man  can  oversee  prop- 
erly. In  good  localities,  an  Apiarist  will  find  more  profit 
from  six  such  apiaries,  than  an  intelligent  farmer  from  half 
a  section  of  land,  and  the  outlay  of  money  is  less. 


318 


THE    APIARY. 


HOXEY-HOUSE. 

586.  Few  pursuits  require  so  small  an  outlay  for  tools 
and  implements  as  practical  bee-culture.  Outside  of  the  cost 
of  hives,  frames,  sections,  and  honey  packages,  the  total  out- 
lay need  not  amount  to  $50.  Almost  any  spare  room  will 
do  for  a  honey-room. 


Fig.    120. 

AVINDOW    SCREEN. 


Yet  when  the  Apiarist  wishes  to  be  at  ease,  we  would 
advise  him  to  build  his  honey-house  in  the  middle  of  his 
apiaiy.  The  windows  and  doors  of  this  building  must  all 
be  provided  with  wire-cloth  netting,  to  exclude  bees,  flies, 
etc.      We   here    give   an    engraving   of   a    simple   method   of 


HONEY-HOUSE.  319 

placing  the  wire  screen,  so  as  to  allow  these  insects  to  escape. 
The  netting  is  nailed  on  the  outside  of  the  window  project- 
ing about  six  mches  above.  Three  small  slats  are  nailed  be- 
tween the  frame  and  the  netting,  so  as  to  leave  a  space  of  ^ 
of  an  inch  between  the  wire-cloth  and  the  wall,  at  the  top 
of  the  window.  The  bees  and  flies  that  have  been  brought 
in  with  the  combs^  or  that  have  entered  the  room,  at  some 
time  or  other,  fly  agamst  the  wire-cloth,  and  soon  find  the 
small  fissure  above,  through  which  they  escape;  but,  in  re- 
turning, they  smell  the  honey  through  the  wire-cloth,  and 
forgetting  that  they  have  escaped  between  the  wire  and  the 
wall,  they  try  in  vain  to  pass  through  the  wire-cloth. 

In  the  engraving,  the  window  sashes  have  been  removed, 
but  their  use  in  no  way  interferes  with  the  screen,  if  the 
lower  one  is  raised,  or  the  upper  one  lowered,  while  there  are 
bees  in  the  room. 

The  same  method  might  be  adopted  in  groceiy  stores  on 
windows  where  flies  congregate.  In  the  morning,  the  flies 
Avould  climb  out  of  the  screen  of  their  own  accord. 


CHAPTER  XL 
Shipping  and  Traxsporting  Bees. 

587.  In  shipping  colonies  of  bees  by  rail,  it  is  not  neces- 
saiy  to  give  them  much  ventilation,  if  they  are  sent  during  the 
cool  weather  of  Spring.  We  have  successfully  shipped  hun- 
dreds of  colonies  to  all  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  in  early  Spring, 
with  no  other  ventilation  than  was  afforded  by  the  joints  of 
a  rough  block  nailed  over  the  entrance  of  the  hive.  But,  if 
the  weather  is  warm,  and  the  colony  populous,  plenty  of  air 
is  needed.  "We  usually  replace  the  bottom-board  by  a  wire- 
cloth-frame  protected  by  slats.  The  entrance  should  never  be 
covered  with  wire-cloth,  but  should  be  entirely  closed,  for  the 
old  bees  will  worry  themselves  tiying  to  get  through  it,  and 
it  will  soon  be  clogged  with  dead  bees.  Jhey  should  be  given 
as  much  air  as  needed  with  the  least  possible  amount  of  light. 

When  the  colony  is  so  populous,  that  draught  through  the 
hive  cannot  injure  the  brood,  we  nail  a  screen  over  the  frames 
also,  and  shade  it  with  a  board  nailed  on  slats,  running 
across  the  ends  of  the  hive.  The  closing  of  the  portico  alone, 
if  there  is  one,  with  wire-cloth,  is  not  practical,  as  a  part 
of  the  swarm  crowds  into  it  and  tars  the  ventilation. 

588.  The  frames  should,  of  course,  be  securely  fastened 
in  their  places,  imless  the  colonies  are  in  self-spacing  frames 
held  in  place  either  by  a  metal  spacer  (346)  or  by  pro- 
jections of  the  wood  (298,  299).  In  addition,  some  Apia- 
rists fit  wooden  slats  between  the  combs  to  keep  them  firmly 
in  place.  This  is  necessary  only  when  hives  are  likely  to  be 
overturned. 

New  combs  had  better  not  be  shipped  at  all.  If  there  is 
plenty  of  fresh  honey,  we  would  advise  the  extracting  of  all 
that  is  unsealed,  previous  to  shipment.     Wlien  there  is  brood 

320 


FLOATING  APIARIES.  321 

in  every  comb,  and  the  weather  is  warm,  it  is  safer  to  remove 
a  part  of  the  brood,  and  put  frames  of  dry  comb  alternately 
with  the  frames  of  brood.  The  brood  removed  may  be  used 
to  strengthen  weak  colonies. 

We  have  sent  bees  safely,  from  Illinois  to  Utah,  by  freight. 

589.  In  shipping  bees,  or  colonies,  it  is  important  to  place 
conspicuous  cautionary  cards  or  labels  on  the  packages: 
Living  Bees,  Handle  with  Care,  This  Side  Up,  Keep  out  of 
Sun,  etc. 

The  damage  done  by  rough  railroad  handling,  is  the  great- 
est item  of  loss,  in  the  transportation  of  bees  properly  packed. 
If  colonies  are  shipped  in  carloads,  they  should  be  so  placed, 
that  the  combs  will  run  lengthwise,  and  not  from  side  to 
side,  as  in  vehicles  drawn  by  horses.  Surplus  racks  cr  stories 
should  be  shipped  separately. 

590.  Some  AiDiarists  have  practiced  shipping  bees  by 
water  routes  to  the  Southern  States  in  the  Fall,  for  Winter, 
and  returning  them  in  Spring  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey 
harvest.  If  proper  precautions  are  taken,  this  plan  may 
be  profitable,  where  low^  rates  of  transportation  can  be  ob- 
tained, but  much  judgment  must  be  exercised  as  to  the  time 
of  returning  them  North.  As  the  colonies  become  strong  very 
early  in  the  South,  if  they  are  brought  back  North  before 
the  warm  weather,  their  brood  may  become  chilled,  and  a 
tendency   to   the   development   of   foul-brood   is   encouraged. 

"Mr.  Cotton  saw  a  man  in  Germany  who  kept  all  his  num- 
erous stocks  rich  by  changing  their  places  as  soon  as  the  honey- 
season  varied.  *  Sometimes  he  sent  them  to  the  moors,  some- 
times to  the  meadows,  sometimes  to  the  forests,  and  sometimes 
to  the  hills.'  In  France — and  the  same  practice  has  existed  in 
Egypt  from  the  most  ancient  times — they  often  put  hundreds 
of  hives  in  a  boat,  which  floats  down  the  stream  by  night  and 
stops  by  day." — London  Quarterly  Eeview. 

591.  Delia  Rocca,  in  his  treatise  on  "Bee-culture  in  the 
Island  of  Syra,"  speaks  of  the  Egyptian  method  of  keeping 
bees  on  boats,  which  were  floated  up  and  down  the  Nile  to 


322  SHIPPING    AND    TRANSPORTING    BEES. 

take  advantage  of  the  different   crops  of   honey   at    different 
points. 

It  would  even  appear  that  the  Greeks  in  the  time  of  Colu- 
mella transported  their  hives  to  Egj^pt  by  sea,  "The  season 
of  blossoms  being  later  than  in  Greece;  for  after  the  month 
of  September  there  is  no  pasture  in  Achaia  for  bees,  whilst 
in  Egypt  flowers  are  in  full  bloom  even  after  that  time, 
owing  to  the  receding  of  the  high  waters  of  the  Nile."  He 
relates  a  laughable  story  about  one  of  these  floating  apiaries. 
One  hive  having  been  upset  by  accident  on  a  boat,  the  enraged 
bees  attacked  the  mariners  unexpectedly,  and  forced  them  to 
jump  into  the  river  and  swim  to  the  shore,  which  likeh',  was 
not  far  distant,  nor  did  they  dare  return,  until  they  had  pro- 
vided themselves  with  a  supply  of  smoke-producing  ingredi- 
ents. 

592.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  fascinating  romance 
connected  with  the  idea  of  a  floating  apiaiy,  following  the 
blossoms,  on  the  waters  of  the  great  Mississippi,  or  of  some 
of  its  tributaries.  An  attempt  of  this  sort  was  made  on  a 
large  scale,  years  ago,  bj^  a  Chicago  firm.  It  was  a  total 
failure,  but  we  are  inclined  to  thmk  that  the  failure  was  due 
to  the  lack  of  practical  knowledge  in  bee-keeping,  on  the 
part  of  the  managers,  rather  than  to  any  other  cause. 

593.  Transportation  of  bees  from  a  location  where  blos- 
soms are  scarce  to  a  good  field,  and  retuiTiing  them  after 
the  crop,  is  sometimes  attended  with  fair  success.  Some  Apia- 
rists, located  in  places  where  the  June  crop  alone  can  be 
depended  upon,  make  it  a  practice  to  transport  their  hives 
to  Fall  pasturage  evei-j^  Summer.  We,  ourselves,  have  taken 
120  hives  of  bees,  about  eighteen  miles,  to  the  Mississippi 
river  bottoms,  in  August,  1880,  when  the  drouth  had  destroyed 
all  hopes  of  a  Fall  harvest  on  the  hills.  The  high  waters  of 
the  Mississippi,  which  had  receded  a  few  weeks  before,  had 
left  those  immense  bottom  lands  covered  with  a  luxuriant 
vegetation.  The  result  fulh'  answered  our  anticipations. 
Those   lately   starving  colonies,  yielded   a   bountiful   surplus, 


SHIPPING   QUEENS.  323 

while  thek  sisters  on  the  hills  had  to  be  led  for  Winter. 
But  the  labor  of  transportation,  the  risk  incurred,  if  the 
colonies  are  strong  and  heavy,  and  the  difficulty  of  trans- 
porting old  bee-hives,  without  danger  of  some  bees  escaping, 
make  the  habitual  shipping  of  bees  for  pasturage  hardly 
advisable.* 

Shipping  Queens. 

594.  It  was  in  the  numerous  and  partially  successful 
attempts,  which  we  made  before  1874,  to  import  bees  from 
Italy,  that  we  became  acquainted  v^ith  the  conditions  neces- 
sary to  the  shipping  of  queens. 

595.  When  they  are  to  be  confined  a  long  time,  the  ques- 
tion of  food  is  the  most  important.  ]\Iany  were  the  blunders 
made  by  the  first  shippers,  who  imagined  that  they  required 
a  large  amount  of  food,  and  Jiterally  dro^vned  them  in  honey. 
By  repeated  and  costly  expeiiments,  we  ascertained  that  the 
bees  that  arrived  in  the  best  condition  were  those  that  were 
fed  on  the  purest  saccharine  matter.  Those  that  suffered  the 
most,  were  those  that  had  the  most  wateiy,  or  the  dark«est, 
honey.  Water  (271),  which  some  Italian  shippers  persisted 
in  givmg  them,  in  spite  of  whajt  we  could  say,  was  noxious; 
as  the  consumption  of  it,  with  the  food,  helped  to  load  their 
abdomen  with  matter  that  could  not  be  discharged,  causing 
what  is  improperly  called  dysentery  (784).  Water  is  needed 
only  in  hrood  rearing. 

596.  Old  bees,  or  rather,  bees  that  have  begun  to  work 
in  the  field,  will  stand  a  longer  trip  than  young  bees,  as  the 
latter  consume  more  honey,  and  need  to  discharge  their 
abdomen  oftener. 


*  Yet,  in  some  locations,  it  is  practiced  regularly  with  success.  Mr. 
R.  F.  Holtermann,  of  the  Province  of  Ontario,  at  the  National  Bee- 
Keepers'  Convention  held  in  Chicago  in  December,  1905,  described  the 
method  by  which  he  transported  bees  to  different  spots  for  the  differ- 
ent crops  during  the  season,  with  success.  In  Northern  countries  the 
transporting  of  bees  in  summer  is  attended  with  less  danger  than  In 
warmer  sections. 


324  SHIPPING    AND    TRANSPORTING    BEES. 

The  shipping  boxes  in  which  bees  are  sent  from  Italy^  are 
about  three  inches  deep,  by  three  inches  in  width,  and  four 
inches  ni  length,  with  two  small  frames  of  comb,  one  with 
thick  sugar  sj-rup,  the  other  dry.  From  fifty  to  seventy-five 
bees  are  put  with  one  queen  in  each  box.  Air  holes  are  cut 
into  the  sides  of  the  boxes,  and  these  are  fastened  together 
ill  a  pyramidal  shape,  with  an. outer  covering  of  tin,  to  which 
is  fastened  the  handle.  Queens  thus  put  up,  reached  us  after 
thirty-six  days  of  confinement  with  very  little  loss,  and  it  is 
in  this  way  that  the  greatest  number  of  imported  queens  were 
received, 

597.  We  might  mention  in  connection  with  this,  an  oft- 
repeated  incident;,  so  touching  and  sweet,  as  to  seem  more 
like  a  romancer's  fable,  or  a  poetic  idyl,  than  a  mere  fact. 
On  receiving  the  boxes  containing  Italian  queens,  we  noticed 
tliat  frequently  all  the  bees  shipped  with  the  queen  had  died, 
she  being  the  only  one  alive  in  her  prison.  We  afterward 
found  out  that  the  faithful  little  subjects  denied  themselves 
nourishment,  and  stars-ed  to  death,  sacrificing  themselves,  that 
their  queen  might  not  be  deprived  of  food. 

Mailing  Queens. 

598.  At  the  present  day  queens  are  foi-warded  almost 
exclusively  by  mail.  To  Mr.  Frank  Benton  is  due  the  credit 
of  first  mailing  queens  safely  across  the  ocean,  but  the  mail- 
ing of  them,  with  more  or  less  success  on  the  American  con- 
tinent, has  been  practiced  for  years.  Messrs.  J.  H.  Townley 
and  H.  Alley,  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  succeed,  as 
early  as  1868. 

Yet  the  mails  are  so  roughlj-  handled  generalh',  that  we 
would  not  advise  the  sending  of  valuable  queens  in  this  way. 

The  food  given  is  the  Seholz  candy  (613)  made  of  pow- 
dered sugar  and  honey  kneaded  together.  A  sufficient  num- 
ber of  bees  must  be  put  with  the  queen  to  keep  her  warn^ 


MAILING    QUEENS. 


325 


but  not  enough  to  crowd  the  cage— six  to  ten  bees  are  suffi- 
cient, m  Summer. 


Fig.    121. 

THE    BENTON    CAGE. 


599.     Some  j'ears  ago,  A.  I.  Root  practiced  the  shipping 
of  bees  by  the  pound  for  the  stocking  of  apiaries,  but  this 


Fig.    122. 

BENTON    CAGES. 

(From    "'The   Rearing   of   Queen    P^es.") 
(U.  S.  Bulletin  No.  55,  Bureau  of  Entomology.     By  E.   F.  Pliillip.s  ) 

method  has  not  proven  successful  and  although  bees  may  still 
be  bought   by   weight,  it  has  been    found   advisable  to   shij: 


.TJG  SHIPPING    AND    TRANSPORTING    BEES. 

tliem  with  some  brood  and  combs,  A  two-comb  nucleus  pro- 
vided with  a  liberal  supply  of  bees  and  put  into  a  shiiDpinj^ 
box  of  right  size  and  of  light  weight,  may  be  sent  to  great 
distance  and  will  build  a  very  fair  colony  if  purchased  at 
the  opening  of  the  clover  hai*\^est  and  properly  cared  for  and 
supplied  with  combs  already  built. 

600.  How  many  bees  are  there  in  a  pound?  This  ques- 
tion has  been  propounded  to  us  several  times.  Uabbe  Collin, 
by  careful  experiments,  found  that  in  a  normal  condition  it 
takes  about  5,100  bees  to  weigh  a  pomid ;  while  in  the  swarm, 
when  they  are  supplied  with  honey,  it  takes  less  than  4,300. 

According  to  Bernard  De  Gelieu,  their  weight  will  vary 
from  3,640  to  5,460.  He  ascertained  that,  m  a  good  season, 
a  thousand  bees  carried  in  about  an  ounce  of  honey  from  the 
field,  at  each  trip. 

The  same  writer,  testing  the  weight  of  drones  found  that 
about  2,000  weighed  a  pound.  This  was  verified  by  the  tests 
of  Prof.  B.  F.  Keens,  of  Connecticut,  quoted  in  the  ABC 
of  Bee  Culture. 

But  Collin,  who  was  veiy  accurate  in  these  matters,  tested 
drones,  both  at  their  leaving  the  hive  and  at  their  return  from 
the  field  and  fomid  that  the  outgoing  drones  number  about 
1,950  to  the  pound,  while  the  returning  drones  number  2,100, 
which  shows  a  loss  of  nearly  eight  per  cent  in  their  weight, 
through  the  taking  of  their  daily  exercise.  This  is  evidently 
caused  by  their  discharging  their  excrements  and  gives  a  faint 
idea  of  the  amomit  of  food  they  must  consume  while  in  the 
hive,  for  they  also  discharge  their  excrements  in  the  hive 
(190),  without  much  regard  to  propriety.  It  also  confirms 
the  fact  that  they  harvest  nothing  but  ahvays  come  home  with 
an  appetite. 

601.  Parties  contemi)hiting  the  breeding  of  bees  and 
queens  for  sale,  will  do  well  to  locate  themselves  as  far  South 
as  convenient  for  easy  shipment,  as  it  is  by  far  more  lucrative 
to  raise  them  there  than  in  the  North.  This  is  veiy  easy  to 
understand.     In  the  South,  the  bees  usually  winter  safely,  and 


TRAXSPORTIXG    BEES    SHORT    DISTANCES.  32^ 

breed  early,  so  that  the  colonies  are  strong,  while  those  of 
the  Northern  latitudes  are  still  confined  in  their  hives,  strug- 
gling against  the  rigors  of  Winter. 

If  an  Apiarist  purchases  bees  or  queens  at  the  proper  time 
—  Spring— to  recruit  his  Winter  loss,  he  will  most  likely  buy 
them  from  some  location  South  of  him,  as  he  can  there  ob- 
tain stronger  colonies,  and  earlier  queens,  than  in  his  own 
latitude. 

602.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  honey  of  the  Northern 
States  is  superior  in  quality  to  Southern  honey,  bee-culture 
for  honey  production  can  be  made  fully  as  profitable  in  the 
North,  in  spite  of  the  difficulties  of  wintering. 

Transporting  Bees  Short  Distances. 

Confine  the  hive,  so  that  it  cannot  be  jolted,  in  a  Avagon 
with  springs,  and  be  sure,  before  starting,  that  it  is  impossible 
for  a  bee  to  get  out.  It  will  be  next  to  impossible,  in  warm 
weather,  to  move  a  hive  which  contains  much  new  comb  or 
much  fresh  honey. 

Indeed,  we  would  strongly  urge  beginners  not  to  transport 
bees  in  warm  weather.  Just  before  fruit-blossom  is  the  best 
time  to  transport  full  colonies  of  bees.  Some  advise  trans- 
porting them  in  Winter,  on  sleds,  but  after  trial  we  con- 
demned this  method  also.  The  joltings  of  a  sleigh,  though 
few,  are  hard,  and  will  break  combs;  and  disturbing  bees 
in  cold  weather  should  always  be  discouraged.  When  hauling 
bees  in  warm  weather,  do  not  load  or  unload  them  while  the 
horses  are  hitched  to  the  wagon.  We  have  seen  serious  acci- 
dents resulting  from  a  hive  dropping  from  a  man's  hand  to 
the  ground,  causing  the  bees  to  escape,  and  to  sting  both  the 
driver  and  the  horses  severely. 

If  a  colony,  in  hot  weather,  is  to  be  moved  any  distance  in 
movable-frame  hives,  it  will  be  advisable  to  fasten  frames 
of  wire-cloth,  both  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  brood  apart- 
ment, and  to  transport  the  bottom-board,  cloth,  mat,  or  sur- 
plus cap  or  cover,  separately. 


328  SHIPPING    AND    TRANSPOKTIXG    BEES. 

A  specially  maue  rack;  similar  to  a  hay-rack,  is  often  used, 
ill  lar^e  apiaries.  Hives  with  movable-frames  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  such  a  position  that  the  frames  run  from  side  to 
side,  and  not  from  front  to  rear,  in  the  wagon. 

603.  Upon  arrival  at  the  apiary,  if  the  weather  is  warm, 
you  should  at  once  set  the  hives  in  proper  position,  and  re- 
lease the  bees.  It  is  good  policy  to  place  a  shade  hoard 
(oYS^  in  front  of  the  entrances  for  a  day  or  two.  The 
object  of  this  is  to  cause  the  old  bees  to  notice  that  something 
is  changed  in  their  location,  and  to  turn  around  and  mark 
the  place,  instead  of  starting  out  as  usual  in  a  bee-line  with- 
out looking  behind. 

604.  New  swarms  may  be  brought  home  in  any  box  which 
has  ample  ventilation.  A  tea-chest,  with  wire-cloth  on  the 
top,  sides,  and  bottom-board,  will  be  found  veiy  convenient. 

The  bees  may  be  shut  up  in  the  box  as  soon  as  they  are 
hived.  New  swarms  require  even  more  air  than  old  colonies, 
being  full  of  honey  and  closely  clustered  together.  They 
should  be  set  in  a  cool  place,  and,  if  the  weather  is  veiy 
sultiy,  should  not  be  removed  until  night.  Many  swarms 
are  suffocated  by  the  neglect  of  these  precautions.  The  bees 
may  be  easily  shaken  out  from  this  temporaiy  hive. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Feeding  Bees. 

605.  Few  things  in  practical  bee-keeping  are  more  im- 
portant than  the  feeding-  of  bees;  yet  none  have  been  more 
grossly  mismanaged  or  neglected. 

In  the  Spring,  the  prudent  hee-keeper  will  no  more  neglect 
to  feed  his  destitute  colonies,  than  to  provide  for  his  own 
Cable.  At  this  season^  being  stimulated  by  the  returning 
warmth,  and  being  largely  engaged  in  breeding,  bees  require 
a  liberal  supply  of  food,  and  many  populous  colonies  perish, 
which  might  have  been  saved  A^nth  but  trifling  trouble  or  ex- 
pense. 

'*If  e'er  dark  Autumn,  with  untimely  storm, 
The  honey 'd  harvest  of  the  year  deform; 
Or  the  chill  blast  from  Eurus'  mildew  wing, 
Blight  the  fair  promise  of  returning  Spring,; 
Full  many  a  hive,  but  late  alert  and  gay, 
Droops  in  the  lap  of  all-inspiring  May. ' ' 

— Evans. 

'*If  the  Spring  is  not  favorable  to  bees,  they  should  be  fed, 
because  that  is  the  season  of  their  greatest  expense  in  honey, 
for  feeding  their  young.  Having  plenty  at  that  time,  enables 
them  to  yield  early  and  strong  swarms." — (Wildman.) 

A  bee-keeper,  whose  colonies  are  allowed  to  perish  after 
the  Spring  has  opened,  is  on  a  level  with  a  farmer  whose 
cattle  are  allowed  to  starve  in  their  stalls;  while  those  who 
withhold  from  them  the  needed  aid,  in  seasons  when  they 
cannot  gather  a  supply,  resemble  the  merchant  who  bums 
up  his  ships,  if  they  have  made  an  unfavorable  voyage. 

Columella  gives  minute  instructions  for  feeding  needy 
colonies,  and  notes  approvingly  the  directions  of  Hyginus— 

320 


330  KKEDING    BEES. 

whose  writings  are  no  longer  extant  — that  this  matter  should 
be  most  carefully  ("diligentissime'')  attended  to. 

Spring  Feeding. 

606.  When  bees  first  begin  to  fly  in  the  Spring,  it  is 
well  to  feed  them  a  little^  as  a  small  addition  to  their  hoards 
encourages  the  production  of  brood.  Great  caution,  how- 
ever, should  be  used  to  prevent  robbing.  Feeding  should 
always  be  attended  to  in  the  evening  (666),  and  as  soon  as 
forage  abounds,  the  feeding  should  be  discontinued. 

Feeding  to  induce  breeding  should  be  done  with  diluted 
honey  or  thin  sugar-syrup,  warmed  before  using.  This  watery 
and  warm  food  given  in  small  quantities  takes  the  place  of 
fresh  honey  and,  like  fresh  harvested  nectar,  saves  the  bees 
the  necessity  of  going  after  water  for  breeding.  It  thus 
serves  two  purposes,  it  induces  more  plentiful  breeding  and 
supplies  water  for  the  larval  food  (662,  271).  Mr.  J.  E. 
Johnson  of  Williamslield,  Illinois,  reported  to  us  great  suc- 
cess by  this  method  which  is  not  usually  followed,  owing  to  the 
care  required,  for  one  must  be  careful  not  to  overdo  the  feed- 
ing or  feed  w^hen  the  weather  is  too  cold.  If  a  colony  is 
over-fed,  the  bees  will  fill  their  brood-combs,  so  as  to  interfere 
with  the  production  of  young,  and  thus  the  honey  given  to 
them  is  worse  than  thro^vn  away. 

The  over-feeding  of  bees  resembles,  in  its  results,  the 
noxious  influences  under  which  too  many  children  of  the 
rich  are  reared.  Pampered  and  fed  to  the  full,  how  often 
does  their  wealth  prove  only  a  legacy  of  withering  curses, 
as,  bankrupt  in  purse  and  character,  they  prematurely  sink 
to  dishonored  graves. 

Colonies,  which  have  abundant  stores,  may  be  incited  to 
breed,  by  simply  bruising  the  cappings  of  a  part  of  their 
honey.  This  causes  them  to  feed  their  queen  more  plentifully, 
and  more  eggs  are  laid. 

607.     Bees  may  require  feeding,  even  when  there  are  many 


i'ALL  FEEDING.  331 

blossoms  ill  the  fields,  before  the  beg-iiining  of  the  main  har- 
vest, if  the  weather  is  unfavorable  to  the  honey  flow.  Large 
quantities  of  brood  hatch  daily,  requiring  much  food,  and  a 
few  days  without  honey  sometimes  endangers  the  life  of  colo- 
nies, en  the  eve  of  a  plentiful  harvest. 

Few  people  realize  the  great  risk  of  starvation  just  at  the 
opening  of  the  honey  crop.  A  good  way  to  feed  destitute 
colonies  in  Spring  is  to  give  them  combs  of  honey,  which 
have  been  saved  from  the  previous  season  for  this  purpose. 
If  such  cannot  be  had,  the  food  may  be  put  into  an  empty 
comb,  and  placed  where  it  can  be  easily  reached  by  the  bees. 

Honey  partially  candied,  or  granulated  (830),  may  be 
given  them,  in  small  quantities,  by  pouring  it  over  the  top 
of  combs  in  which  the  bees  are  clustered.  A  bee  deluged  by 
sweets,  when  away  from  home,  is  a  soriy  spectacle;  but  what 
is  thus  given  them  does  no  harm,  and  they  will  lick  eacli 
other  clean,  with  as  much  satisfaction  as  a  little  child  sucks 
its  fingers  while  feasting  on  sugar  candy. 

Hard  candied  honey  is  still  better  and  may  be  heaped  or 
plastered  over  the  top  bars  back  of  the  cluster. 

If  a  colony  has  too  few  bees,  its  population  must  be  re- 
plenished before  it  is  fed.  To  build  up  small  colonies  by 
feeding,  requires  more  care  and  judgment  than  any  other 
process  in  bee-culture,  and  will  rarely  be  required  by  those 
who  have  movable-frame  hives.  It  can  only  succeed  when 
everything  is  made  subservient  to  the  most  rapid  production 
of  brood. 

Fall  Feeding. 

608.  By  the  time  the  honey-harvest  closes,  all  the  colo- 
nies ought  to  be  strong  in  numbers:  and,  in  favorable  sea- 
sons, their  aggregate  resources  should  be  such  that,  when  an 
equal  division  is  made,  there  will  be  enough  food  for  all.  If 
some  have  more,  and  others  less  than  they  need,  an  equitable 
division  may  usually  be  effected  in  movable-frame  hives.  Such 
an  agrarian  procedure  would  soon  overthrow  human  society; 


332 


KLLDiXG    BEES. 


but  bees  thus  helped,  will  not  spend  the  next  season  m  idle- 
ness; nor  will  those  deprived  of  their  surplus  limit  their 
iratherings  to  a  bare  competency. 

Before  the  first  heavy  frosts  all  feeding- 
required  for  wintei-ing  bees  should  be  care- 
fully attended  to. 

(>(U>.  Feeders  of  all  descriptions  are 
made  and  sold.  To  feed  our  bees  we  haN( 
used  for  years  a  finiit  can,  (fig.  123)  qo\- 
ered  with  cloth  and  inverted  over  the  hivt 
It  costs  nothing  and  can  be  found  in  every 
house.  AVe  now  use  HilTs  Feeder  (tig.  124), 
in  which  the  cloth  is  replaced  by  a  ]»erf()rated  cover, 


Fig.    123. 
CAN    FEEDER. 


hill's  bee-feeder. 

The  bees  can  then  get  their  food,  without  being  chilled  even 
in  cold  weather,  and  they  promptly  store  it  away  in  the 
combs,  for  later  use. 

In  order  that  the  heat  may  be  better  retained,  a  hole  of  the 
size  of  the  feeder  may  be  cut  mto  a  piece  of  enamel  cloth 
used  for  the  purpose  in  jjlace  of  the  ordinaiy  cloth. 

Columella  recommended  wool,  soaked  m  honey,  for  feed- 
ing bees.  When  the  weather  is  not  too  cold,  a  saucer,  bowl, 
trough,  or  vessel  of  any  kind,  filled  with  straw,  makes  a  con- 
venient feeder. 

It  is  desirable  to  get  through  with  Fall  feeding  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  as  the  bees  are  so  excited  by  it  that   they  con- 


FALL   FEEDING. 


333 


sunie  iijore  food  than  they  otherwise  would.  In  feeding  a 
large  amount  for  Winter  supply,  we  have  given  as  many 
as  five  quart-cans  to  one  colony  at  one  time.  Wooden  feed- 
ers in  the  shape  of  troughs,  as  made  by  Root,  Shuck,  and 
Heddon,  have  the  advantage  over  the  cans  of  not  needing 
removal  to  be  refilled,  but  they  are  not  so  well  in  reach  of  the 
cluster. 


Fig.    125. 

DOOLITTLE    DmSION    BOARD    FEEDER. 


The  Doolittle  division  board  feeder  is  made  m  the  shajx^ 
of  a  wide  frame  boarded  up  on  both  sides.  This  feeder  will 
drown  the  bees  unless  a  slat  is  put  inside  of  it^  to  float  at 
the  top  of  the  feed  given. 


Fig.    126. 

THE     MILLER    FEEDER. 


The  Miller  feeder  is  placed  over  the  combs  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  super.  It  places  the  feed  well  in  reach  of-  the 
bees.  Numerous  other  feeders  have  been  devised  and  all 
have  some  good  points. 


334  FEEDING   BEES. 

610.  As  honey  is  scarce  in  the  seasons  when  Fall  feed- 
ing has  to  be  resorted  to,  we  will  give  directions  for  making 
good  syrup  for  Winter  food:  Dissolve  twenty  pounds  of 
granulated  sugar  (use  none  but  the  best)  in  one  gallon  of 
boiling  water,  with  the  addition  of  five  or  six  pounds  of 
honey.     Stir  till  well  melted,  and  feed  while  lukewarm.* 

611.  Sugar  candy,  for  feeding  bees,  was  first  recom- 
mended by  Mr.  Weigel  of  Silesia.  If  the  candy  is  laid  on 
the  frames  just  above  the  clustered  bees,  it  will  be  accessible 
to  them  in  the  coldest  weather.  It  may  also  be  put  between 
the  combs,  in  an  upright  position,  among  the  bees,  or  poured 
into  combs  before  it  is  cold. 

To  make  candy  for  bee-feed:  add  water  to  sugar,  and 
boil  sloAvly  until  the  water  is  evaporated.  Stir  constantly 
so  that  it  will  not  burn. 

To  know  when  it  is  done,  dip  your  finger  first  into  cold  wa- 
ter and  then  into  the  syrup.  If  what  adheres  is  brittle  to  the 
teeth,  it  is  boiled  enough.  Pour  it  into  shallow  pans,  a  little 
greased,  and,  when  cold,  break  into  pieces  of  a  suitable  size. 

612.  Before  attempting  to  make  candy  for  bee  feed,  the 
novice  will  do  well  to  read  the  following  advice  from  the 
witty  pen  of  friend  A.  I.  Root: 

**If  your  candy  is  burned,  no  amount  of  boiling  will  make  it 
hard,  and  your  best  way  is  to  use  it  for  cooking,  or  feeding  the 
bees  in  Summer.  Burnt  sugar  is  death  to  them,  if  fed  in  cold 
weather.  You  can  tell  when  it  is  burned  by  the  smell,  color 
and  taste.  If  you  do  not  boil  it  enough,  it  will  be  soft  and 
sticky  in  warm  weather,  and  will  be  liable  to  drip,  when  stored 
away.  Perhaps  you  had  better  try  a  pound  or  two,  at  first, 
while  you  'get  your  hand  in.'  Our  first  experiment  was  with 
50  lbs.  and  it  all  got  *  scorched '  somehow.  .  .  .  Before  you 
commence,  make  up  your  mind,  you  will  not  get  one  drop  of 
sugar  or  syrup  on  the  floor  or  table.  Keep  your  hands  clean, 
and  everything  else  clean,  and  let  the  women  folks  see  that 
men  have  common  sense;  some  of  them  at  least.     If  you  should 


*  Pure   sugar    syrup    without    addition   of   honey   often    crystallizes    in 
the  combs  and  becomes  as  hard  as  rock  candy. 


FALL   lEEDING.  335 

forget  yourself,  and  let  the  candy  boil  over  on  the  stove,  it 
would  be  very  apt  to  get  on  the  floor,  and  then  you  would  be 
very  likely  to  '  get  your  foot  in  it, '  and  before  you  got  through, 
you  might  wish  you  had  never  heard  of  bees  or  candy  either; 
and  your  wife,  if  she  did  not  say  so,  might  wish  she  had  never 
heard  of  anything  that  brought  a  man  into  the  kitchen.  I 
have  had  a  little  experience  in  the  line  of  feet  sticking  to  the 
floor  and  snapping  at  every  step  you  take,  and  with  door  knobs 
sticking  to  the  fingers,  but  it  was  in  the  honey  house." 

613.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Seholz,  of  Silesia,  years  ago,  recom- 
mended the  folloAving  as  a  substitute  for  sugar-candy  in  feed- 
ing bees: 

' '  Take  one  pint  of  honey  and  four  pounds  of  pounded  lump- 
sugar;  heat  the  honey,  without  adding  water,  and  mix  it  with 
the  sugar,  working  it  together  to  a  stiff  doughy  mass.  When 
thus  thoroughly  incorporated,  cut  it  into  slices,  or  form  it  into 
cakes  or  lumps,  and  wrap  them  in  a  piece  of  coarse  linen  and 
place  them  in  the  frames.  Thin  slices,  enclosed  in  linen,  may 
be  pushed  down  between  the  combs.  The  plasticity  of  the 
mass  enables  the  Apiarist  to  apply  the  food  in  any  manner  he 
may  desire.  The  bees  have  less  difficulty  in  appropriating  this 
kind  of  food  than  where  candy  is  used,  and  there  is  no  waste.'' 

This  preparation  has  been  used  of  late  years  with  success, 
as  food  in  mailing  and  shipping  bees,  under  the  name  of 
"Good's  candy." 

Thick  sugar-syrui3  and  candy  are  undoubtedly  the  best  bee- 
food,  especially  when  the  bees  are  to  be  confined  a  long  time 
and  no  brood  is  to  be  raised. 

614.  An  experiment  of  De  Layens  has  proved  that  bees 
can  use  water  to  dissolve  sugar  (273).  The  same  writer  re- 
lates how  a  French  bee-keeper,  Mr.  Beuzelin,  feeds  his  bees 
in  Winter: 

"He  saws  into  slices  a  large  loaf  of  lump-sugar,  and  places 
these  slices  upon  the  frames  under  a  cloth.  Another  bee-keeper 
told  me  several  years  ago  of  having  saved  colonies  in  straw 
hives  by  simply  suspending  in  them,  with  wires,  lumps  of  sugar 
weighing  several  pounds." — (Bulletin  de  la  Suisse  Romande.) 


330  FEEDING   BEES. 

While  such  methods  succeed  in  a  mild  and  damp  climate, 
like  that  of  France,  they  are  not  advisable  in  the  Northern 
part  of  the  United  States,  unless  the  bees  are  wintered  in 
cellars  (^646). 

615.  The  prudent  Apiarist  will  regard  the  feeding  of 
bees— the  little  given  by  way  of  encouragement  excepted— 
as  an  evil  to  he  submitted  to  only  when  it  cannot  be  avoided, 
and  will  much  prefer  that  they  should  obtain  their  supplies 
in  the  manner  so  beautifully  described  by  him  whose  inimitable 
writings  furnish  us,  on  almost  every  subject,  with  the  hap- 
piest illustrations: 

* '  So  work  the  honey-bees, 
Creatures  that,  by  a  rule  in  Nature,  teach 
The  art  of  order  to  a  peopled  kingdom. 
They  have  a  king  and  officers  of  sorts, 
Where  some,  like  magistrates,  correct  at  home. 
Others,  like  merchants,  venture  trade  abroad; 
Others,  like  soldiers,  armed  in  their  stings, 
Make  boot  upon  the  Summer's  velvet  buds; 
Which  pillage  they,  with  merry  march,  bring  home 
To  the  tent  royal  of  their  emperor. 
Who,  busied  in  his  majesty,  surveys 
The  singing  masons  building  roofs  of  gold; 
The  civil  citizens  kneading  up  the  honey; 
The  poor  mechanic  porters  crowding  in 
Their  heavy  burdens  at  his  narrow  gate; 
The  sad-eyed  justice,  with  his  surly  hum. 
Delivering  o  'er,  to  executors  pale, 
The  lazy,  yawning  drone." 

Shakespeare's  Henry  Y,  Act  1,  Scene  2. 

(>1(>.  All  attempts  to  derive  piotit  from  selling  cheap 
lioney  or  syrup,  fed  to  bees,  have  invariably  proved  unsuc- 
cessful. The  notion  that  they  can  change  all  sweets,  however 
poor  their  quality,  into  honey,  on  the  same  principle  that  cows 
secrete  milk  from  any  acceptable  food,  is  a  complete  delusion. 

Pifferent  kinds  of  honey  or  sugar-syrup   fed  to  the  bees 


FEEDING    FOR    PROFIT.  337 

can  be  as  readily  distinguished,  after  they  have  sealed  them 
up,  as  before. 

The  Golden  Age  of  bee-keeping,  m  which  bees  are  to  trans- 
mute inferior  sweets  into  such  balmy  spoils  as  were  gathered 
on  Hybla  or  Hymettus,  is  as  far  from  prosaic  reality  as  the 
visions  of  the  poet,  who  saw — 

*'A  golden  hive,  on  a  golden  bank, 
Where  golden  bees,  by  alchemical  prank, 
Gather  gold  instead  of  honey. ' ' 

Even  if  cheap  sugar  could  be  ''made  over"  by  the  bees  so 
as  to  taste  like  honey,  it  would  cost  the  producer,  taking 
into  account  the  amount  consumed  (223)  in  elaborating 
wax,  as  much  as  the  market  price  of  white  clover  honey. 

617.  The  experienced  Apiarist  will  fully  appreciate  the 
necessity  of  preventing  his  bees  getting  a  taste  of  forbidden 
sweets,  and  the  inexperienced,  if  incautious,  will  soon  learn 
a  salutary  lesson.  Bees  were  intended  to  gather  their  sup- 
plies from  the  nectaries  of  flowers,  and,  while  following  their 
natural  instincts,  have  little  disposition  to  meddle  with  prop- 
erty that  does  not  belong  to  them;  but,  if  their  incautious 
owner  tempts  them  with  liquid  food,  at  times  when  they  can 
obtam  nothing  from  the  blossoms,  they  become  so  infatuated 
with  such  easy  gatherings  as  to  lose  all  discretion,  and  will 
perish  by  thousands  if  the  vessels  which  contain  the  food  are 
not  furnished  w4th  floats^  on  which  they  can  safely  stand  to 
help  themselves. 

As  the  ^y  Avas  not  intended  to  banquet  on  blossoms,  but 
on  substances  in  which  it  might  easily  be  drowned,  it 
cautiously  alights  on  the  edge  of  any  vessel  containing  liquid 
food,  and  warily  helps  itself;  while  the  poor  bee,  plunging 
in  headlong,  speedily  perishes.  The  sad  fate  of  their  unfor- 
tunate companions  does  not  in  the  least  deter  others  who 
approach  the  temptmg  lure,  from  madly  alighting  on  the 
bodies  of  the  dying  and  the  dead,  to  share  the  same  miserable 
end!     No  one  can  understand  the  extent  of  their  infatuation. 


33S  FEEDING   BEES. 

until  lie  has  seen  a  cont'ectionei*'s  shop  assailed  by  myriads 
of  hungry  bees.  We  have  seen  thousands  strained  out  from 
the  syrups  in  which  they  had  perished;  thousands  more  alight- 
ing even  upon  the  boiling  sweets;  the  floors  covered  and  win- 
dows darkened  with  bees,  some  crawling,  others  flying,  and 
others  still,  so  completely  besmeared  as  to  be  able  neither  to 
crawl  nor  fly — not  one  in  ten  able  to  cany  home  its  ill-gotten 
spoils,  and  yet  the  air  filled  with  new  hosts  of  thoughtless 
comers. 

We  once  furnished  a  candj'-shop,  in  the  vicinity  of  our 
apiaiy,  with  wire-gauze  windows  and  doors,  after  the  bees 
had  commenced  their  depredations.  On  finding  themselves 
excluded,  they  alighted  on  the  wire  by  thousands,  fairly 
squealing  with  vexation  as  thej"  vainly  tried  to  force  a  pas- 
sage through  the  meshes.*  Baffled  in  eveiy  effort,  they  at- 
temi:>ted  to  descend  the  chimney,  reeking  with  sweet  odors, 
even  although  most  who  entered  it  fell  with  scorched  wings 
into  the  fire,  and  it  became  necessarj-  to  put  wii-e-gauze  over 
the  top  of  the  chimney  also. 

618.  As  we  have  seen  thousands  of  bees  destroyed  in 
such  places,  thousands  more  hopelessly  struggling  in  the  de- 
luding sweets,  and  j-et  increasing  thousands,  all  unmindful  of 
their  danger,  blindly  hovering  over  and  alighting  on  them, 
how  often  have  they  reminded  us  of  the  infatuation  of  those 
who  abandon  themselves  to  the  mtoxicating  cup!  Even  al- 
though such  persons  see  the  miserable  victims  of  this  degrad- 
ing ^^ce  falling  all  around  them  into  premature  graves,  they 
still  press  madly  on,  trampling,  as  it  were,  over  their  dead 
bodies,  that  they  too  may  sink  mto  the  same  abyss,  and  their 
sun  also  go  down  in  hopeless  gloom. 

The  avaricious  bee  that  plunges  recklessly  into  the  tempt- 
ing sweets,  has  ample  time  to  bewail  her  folly.     Even  if  she 


*  Manufacturers  of  candies  and  syrups  will  find  it  to  their  interest 
to  fit  such  guards  to  their  premises  ;  for,  if  only  one  bee  in  a  hundred 
escapes  with  its  load,  considerable  loss  will  be  incurred  in  the  course  of 
the  season. 


USE    AXD    ABUSE.  339 

clues  nor  t(»rl'eit  her  life,  she  r.>lurns  h<!ir.e  with  a  \V(ie-begune 
look,  and  soiTrwfiil  note,  in  marked  cr.ntrast  wi;h  the  bright 
hues  and  merry  sounds  with  which  her  industrious  fellows 
come  back  frcm  their  happy  rovin^s  amid  "budding  honey- 
liowers  and  sweetly-breathing  tieids.'^ 


CHAPTER   XIIT. 

^YIXTERIyG    AND    SPRING    DwiXDLIXG. 

Wintering. 

619.  Bees  can  be  wintered  safely  in  nearly  all  climates, 
where  the  Sunnuer  is  long-  enough  to  enable  them  to  store  a 
Winter  supply.  In  the  natural  state,  the  vital  heat  of  the 
live  hollow  trees  in  which  they  dwell,  helps  to  maintain  a 
higher  temperature  than  that  of  the  outside  air,  and  bees 
Winter  so  well  in  such  abodes,  that  travelers,  who  visit  North- 
ern Russia,  wonder  how  so  small  an  insect  can  live  in  such 
inhospitable  countries. 

620.  As  soon  as  frosty  weather  arrives,  bees  cluster  com- 
pactly together  in  their  hives,  to  keep  warm.  They  do  not 
usually  assemble  on  combs  full  of  honey,  but  on  the  empty 
comb  just  below  the  honey.  They  are  never  dormant,  like 
wasps  and  hornets,  and  a  thermometer  pushed  up  among  them 
will  show  a  Summer  temperature,  even  when,  in  the  open  air, 
it  is  many  degrees  below  zero. 

The  bees  in  the  cluster  are  imbricated,  like  the  shingles  of 
a  roof,  each  bee  having  her  head  mider  the  abdomen  of  the 
one  above  her,  and  so  on,  to  the  ones  who  are  in  reach  of 
the  honey.  These  pass  the  honey  to  those  below  them,  which 
pass  it  to  the  next,  and  so  on,  to  the  bottom  of  the  mass. 

621.  When  the  cold  becomes  intense,  they  keep  up  an 
incessant  tremulous  motion,  in  order  to  develop  more  heat* 


*  Everybody  knows  that  motion  transforms  itself  into  heat,  and  that 
heat  is  but  a  form  of  motion.  .  .  .  whether  the  motion  comes  from 
a  large  body  or  from  a  small  one,  whether  this  motion  be  suddenly 
or  gradually  stopped,  the  result  is  the  same,  it  is  transformed  into 
heat. —  (Flammarion,   "Le   Monde   Avant   la   Creation   de   THomme.") 

340 


WINTERIXG.  341 

bj^  active  exercise;  and,  as  those  on  tiie  outside  of  tiie  cluster 
become  chilled,  they  are  replaced  by  others.  Besides,  the  fan- 
ning of  wmgs,  which  causes  this  roar,  sends  the  warm  air 
from  the  top  of  the  cluster  to  the  bottom  of  the  hive— thus 
warming  the  bees  placed  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  cluster;  and 
these,  if  not  too  chilled,  take  advantage  of  a  warmer  day, 
to  climb  above  the  mass,  and  get  honey  in  their  turn. 

When  the  weather  is  very  cold,  their  humming  can  often 
be  heard  outside  of  the  hive;  and,  if  the  hive  be  jarred,  at 
any  time,  there  comes  a  responsive  murmur,  which  is  longer 
or  shorter  in  duration,  and  lower  or  higher  in  tone,  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  col'ony. 

622.  As  all  muscular  exertion  requires  food  to  supply 
the  waste  of  the  system,  the  more  quiet  bees  can  be  kept, 
the  less  they  will  eat.  It  is,  therefore,  highly  important  to 
preserve  them  as  far  as  possible,  in  Winter,  from  every  de- 
gree, either  of  heat  or  cold,  which  will  arouse  them  to  great 
activity.  ' 

When  all  the  food  which  is  in  their  reach  is  consumed,  they 
will  starve,  if  the  temperature  is  too  cold  to  allow  them  to 
move  their  cluster  to  the  parts  of  the  combs  which  contain 
honey;  hence,  if  the  central  combs  of  the  hive  are  not  well 
stored  with  honey,  they  should  be  exchanged  for  such  as  are, 
so  that,  when  the  cold  compels  the  bees  to  recede  from  the 
outer  combs,  they  may  cluster  among  their  stores.  In  districts 
where  bees  gather  but  little  honey  in  the  Fall,  such  precau- 
tions, in  cold  climates,  will  be  specially  needed,  as,  often,  after 
breeding  is  over,  their  central  combs  will  be  almost  empty. 
For  this  reason  Canadian  apiarists  often  feed  their  colonies 
until  the  central  combs  are  entirely  filled  with  honey  at  the 
opening  of  Winter. 

623.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how  much  honey  will  be 
needed  to  carry  a  colony  safely  through  the  Winter.  Much 
will  depend  on  the  w^ay  in  which  they  are  wintered,  whether 
in  the  open  air  or  in  special  depositories,  where  they  are 
protected    against    the    undue    excitement    caused    by    sudden 


342  WIXTEKIXG    AND    SPRING    DWINDLING. 

and  severe  atmospheric  cliaujjes;  much,  also,  oii  the  length 
of  the  Winters,  which  vai-y  so  much  in  different  latitudes,  and 
the  forwardness  of  the  ensuing  Spring.  In  some  of  our  North- 
ern States,  bees  will  often  gather  nothing  for  more  than  six 
months,  while,  in  the  extreme  South,  thej-  are  seldom  de- 
l)rived  of  all  natural  supplies  for  as  many  weeks.  In  all  our 
Northern  and  Middle  States,  if  the  colonies  are  to  be  win- 
tered out  of  doors,  they  should  have  at  least  twenty-five 
pounds  of  honey. 

In  movable-frame  hives,  the  amount  of  stores  may  be  easily 
ascertained  by  actual  inspection.  The  weight  of  hives  is  not 
always  a  safe  criterion,  as  old  combs  are  heavier  than  new 
ones,  besides  being  often  over-stored  with  pollen.   (263.) 

624.  Practical  bee-keepers  usually  judge  of  the  amount  of 
stores  by  sight.  The  majoritj^  of  combs  in  an  ordinaiy  Lang- 
strotli  hive  should  be  at  least  half  full  of  honey,  for  outdoor 
wintering,  in  this  latitude.  Remember  that  food  is  needed,  not 
only  to  cari-y  them  through  the  Winter,  but  also  to  help  them 
to  raise  brood  largely,  during  the  cold  days  of  early  Spring. 
Bees  do  not  waste  their  stores,  and  the  wealthy  colonies  will 
usually  be  found  stronger,  and  better  i)repared  for  the  follow- 
ing harvest. 

Enthusiastic  beginners,  in  Apiculture,  are  apt  to  overdo  ex- 
tracting, leaving  too  little  honey  in  the*  brood-chamber  for 
Whiter.  If  the  bees  are  not  actually  crowded  with  honey, 
w^e  w^ould  advise  them  to  leave,  to  strong  colonies,  all  the 
honey  that  the  brood-chamber  contains.  Some  may  think  that 
nine  or  ten  heavy  Quinby  frames,  are  too  many  for  a  colony, 
for  they  may  he  wintered  on  six  or  seven.  We  will  here  give 
a  bit  of  our  experience  on  that  point : 

625.  About  the  year  1S75,  in  an  apiary  away  from  home, 
where  we  were  raising  comb-honey,  Ave  had  a  number  of 
swarms,  which,  in  the  rush  of  the  honey-crop,  we  did  not 
examine  until  their  combs  were  built.  At  that  time,  the 
triangular  bar  (319)  was  the  guide  principally  used,  and  the 
combs  of  some  of  these   swarms  were  joined   together  in   a 


WIXTERIXG.  343 

way  that  rendered  the  frames  immovable.  In  the  Fall,  we 
extracted  (749)  from  the  brood-chamber  of  nearly  every 
colony,  as  was  then  our  practice,  leaving  only  seven  Quinby 
frames  on  an  average— for  Winter.  The  colonies  that  had 
crooked  combs  were  left  with  all  their  stores— ten  frames— 
because  we  could  not  disturb  them  without  breaking  combs, 
and  causing  leakage  and  robbing,  and  it  was  not  the  proper 
season  to  transfer  (5  7.1:)  them.  These  colonies  did  not  have 
to  be  fed,  the  following  Spring,  became  very  strong,  and 
yielded  the  largest  crop.  This  untried-for  result  caused  us 
to  make  further  experiments,  which  proved  that  there  is  a 
profit  in  leaving^  to  strong  colonies,  a  large  quantity  of  honey, 
so  that  they  will  not  limit  their  Sirring  hreeding. 

€26.  The  quality  of  the  bee-food  is  an  important  matter 
in  w^intering  bees.  Protracted  cold  weather  compels  them  to 
eat  large  quantities  of  honey,  fillmg  their  intestines  with  fecal 
matter  w^hich  they  cannot  void,  for  bees  never  discharge  their 
faeces  in  the  hive,  unless  they  are  confined  too  long,  or  greatly 
disturbed. 

Unhealthy  food  in  prolonged  confinement,  sooner  or  later 
causes  diarrhcea  (784),  not  only  in  wintering  out  of  doors, 
but  in  cellar  Avintering  (646),  and  in  shipping  bees  long 
distances  (587). 

DiaiThoea,  or  as  some  call  it,  dysentery,  in  bees,  is  not 
properly  a  disease,  since  it  is  only  caused  by  the  retainmg 
in  the  abdomen,  of  a  large  amount  of  excrements,  which  in 
ordinary  circumstances  w^ould  be  voided  regularly.  Whenever 
bees  have  been  confined  for  two  weeks  or  more,  they  discharge 
in  flight  excrements  which  soil  eveiything  about  the  ajDiai-y. 
The  housekeeper  avoids  hanging  clothes  out  to  diy  on  such 
days.  These  excrements  or  faeces,  from  a  reddish  yellow  to  a 
muddy  black  in  color^  according  to  the  quality  of  the  food 
eaten,  have  an  intolerably  offensive  smell.  In  excessive  con- 
finement, with  a  large  consumption,  from  any  cause,  of  more 
or  less  healthy  food,  when  bees  can  no  longer  retain  the  excre- 
ments in  their  distended  abdomen,  they  void  them  upon  one 


344  WIXTERIXG   AND    SPKIXfi    UWIXDLIXC. 

another,  upon  the  combs,  upon  the  floor,  and  at  the  entrance 
of  the  hive,  "which  bees  in  a  heahhy  state  are  particularly 
careful  to  keep  clean." 

If  bees  can  void  them,  in  flight  (73),  before  it  is  too  late, 
they  experience  no  bad  effects,  hence  it  is  indispensable  that, 
when  wintered  out  of  doors,  bees  should  be  enabled  to  ^y,  at 
intervals,  during  the  Winter. 

627.  From  numerous  experiments  made,  it  is  evident  that 
the  purest  saccharine  matter  will  feed  them  with  the  least  pro- 
duction of  faeces.  Hence  watery,  unripe,  or  sour  honey,  and 
all  honey  containmg  extraneous  matter,  are  more  or  less  in- 
jurious to  confined  bees.  Dark  honey  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  mcllose  is  inferior  to  clover-honey  or  sugar-syrup. 
Honey  harvested  from  flowers  which  yield  much  pollen 
(1^3),  is  likely  to  contain  many  floating  grams  of  it,  and 
will  be  more  injurious  than  clear,  transparent  honey,  in  cases 
where  bees  will  be  confined  to  their  hives  by  cold  for  five  or 
six  weeks.  Honey-dew  (255)  seems  worse  yet.  The  juices 
of  fruits,  apples,  grapes,  etc.  (877),  are  worst  of  all.  After 
the  Winter  of  1880-81,  we  purchased  the  remains  of  some  90 
colonies,  that  had  been  winter-killed,  and  in  which  the  only 
food  left  was  apple- juice,  that  had  been  carried  in,  during  the 
preceding  Fall,  and  had  turned  to  cider.  This  unwholesome 
food  in  Winter  confinement,  by  causing  diarrhoea,  had  killed 
bees  everywhere  around  us    (784). 

628.  Happily  these  instances,  of  bees  storing  apple- juice, 
are  scarce,  but  the  practical  bee-keeper  will  not  allow  such 
food  to  remain  in  the  hive.  It  may  be  extracted  (749), 
boiled,  and  fed  back  in  Spring,  for  bees  do  not  suffer  from 
this  food  when  not  confined  to  their  hives.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  inferior  or  unripe  honey  (261). 

Much  unsealed  honey  in  the  comb  is  injurious  for  Winter, 
even  if  the  honey  is  ripe.  This  unsealed  honey  gathers 
moisture  on  account  of  its  hygrometric  properties,  and  be- 
comes thin  and  watery.  In  addition  to  this  peculiarity,  honey, 
when  cold,  condenses  the  moisture  or  steam  from  the  bees,  in 


WINTERING.  345 

the  same  manner  that  a  pitcher  of  cold  water  condenses  the 
moisture  of  the  air  in  a  warm  room.  In  some  Winters,  we 
have  seen  unsealed  lioney  gather  so  much  of  the  moisture  that 
it  overllowed,  and  ran  out  of  the  cells  to  the  bottom-board. 
Luckily  the  bees  usually  consume  this  honey  first,  before  Win- 
ter begins. 

629.  To  avoid  the  accidents  caused  by  poor  honey,  some 
Apiarists  have  suggested  that  all  the  honey  might  be  extracted 
every  Fall,  and  sugar-syrup  fed  in  its  place.  At  the  first 
glance,  this  course  seems  j)rofltable,  when  the  difference  be- 
tween the  price  of  comb-honey  and  the  cost  of  sugar-syrup 
is  considered,  but  when  we  take  into  account  the  trouble  of 
feeding,  and  the  poor  results  obtained  in  wintering  the  bees, 
we  see  much  labor  for  a  small  profit.  Having  ascertained 
that  bees  winter  better  on  Spring  or  light-colored  honey,  w^e 
no  longer  extract  from  the  brood-chamber,  avoiding  the  annoy- 
ance and  the  extra  labor  of  feeding.  Our  experience  has  con- 
vinced us  that,  unless  the  Spring  crop  has  failed,  or  the  food 
is  decidedly  bad,  such  as  unripe  honey  (249),  or  honey-dew 
(255),  or  fruit-juice  (8'77),  it  is  cheaper  to  winter  bees  on 
natural  stores.  When  sugar-syrup  is  needed,  none  but  the  best 
sugar  should  be  used.  (616.) 

630.  All  empty  combs,  whether  brood-combs  or  surplus- 
combs,  should  be  removed  from  the  hive  previous  to  cold 
weather,  as  the  bees,  which  may  cluster  in  them,  would  starve 
at  the  first  cold  spell  without  being  able  to  join  the  cluster. 
We  have  seen  a  whole  colony  perish,  during  a  cold  fortnight 
in  December,  because  they  had  occupied  an  extracting  stoiy 
(which  had  but  little  honey  in  it,  and  had  been  left  on  by 
neglect),  although  there  was  plenty  of  honey  m  the  hive,  a 
few  inches  below  them.  The  space  left  empty  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  combs  should  be  filled  with  a  warm  material 
placed  between  the  side  of  the  hive  and  the  division  board. 

631.  As  some  bees  which  cluster  on  the  outside  combs 
are  often  unable  to  join  the  others  in  cold  weather,  it  would 
be  well  to  have  holes,  or  Winter  passages,  through  the  combs, 


346  WIXTERIX(;    and    SFKIN);    DWIXULIXli. 

such  as  will  allow  them  to  pass  readily,  in  cold  weather,  from 
one  to  another;  but  if  these  holes  are  made  before  they  feci 
the  need  of  them,  they  will  frequently  close  them.  It  is  susr- 
gested  that  small  tubes  made  of  elder^  the  pith  of  which  has 
been  removed,  would  make  permanent  Winter-passages,  if  in- 
serted in  the  comb^  at  any  time.  On  a  cold  November  day, 
Mr.  Langstrolh  found  bees,  in  a  hive  without  any  Winter- 
passages,  separated  from  the  main  cluster,  and  so  chilled  as 
not  to  be  able  to  move;  while,  with  the  thermometer  many 
degrees  below  zero,  he  repeatedly  noticed,  in  other  hives,  at 
one  of  the  holes  made  in  the  comb,  a  cluster,  varying  in  size, 
ready  to  rush  out  at  the  slightest  jar  of  their  hive. 


Fig.    127. 

HILI.     DEVICE. 

It  has  been  found  quite  practical  to  give  them  a  passage 
above  the  combs,  or  between  the  combs  and  the  straw-mat, 
or  quilt,  above  them.  The  Hill  device  sold  by  many  dealers, 
is  very  good  for  this  purpose,  although  we  find  that  the  bees 
often  have  hridge-comhs  m  sufficient  quantity  above  the 
frames  to  give  them  the  necessaiy  passage, 

Out-Door  Wixterixg. 

632.  The  usual  mode  of  allowing  bees  to  remain  all  Win- 
ter on  their  Summer  stands,  is,  in  cold  climates,  verj^  ob- 
jectionable. In  those  parts  of  the  country,  however,  where 
the  cold  is  seldom  so  severe  as  to  prevent  them  from  flying, 
at  frequent  intervals,  from  their  hives,  no  better  way,  all 
things  considered,  can  be  devised.  In  such  favored  regions, 
bees  are  but  little  removed  from  their  native  climate,  and  their 
wants  may  be  easily  supplied,  without  those  injurious  effects 


OUT-DOOR   WIXTERIXG.  347 

which  commonly  result  from  disturbing  them  when  the  weather 
is  so  cold  as  to  confine  them  to  their  hives. 

If  the  colonies  are  to  be  wintered  in  the  open  air,  they 
should  all  be  made  populous,  and  rich  in  stores,  even  if  to 
do  so  requires  their  number  to  be  reduced  one-half  or  more. 
The  bee-keeper  who  has  ten  strong  colonies  in  the  Spring, 
will,  by  judicious  management  with  movable-frame  hives,  be 
able  to  close  the  season  with  a  larger  apiary  than  one  who 
begins  it  with  thirty,  or  more,  feeble  ones. 

632  (bis).  Small  colonies  consume,  proportionally,  much 
more  food  than  large  ones,  and  then  perish  from  inability  to 
maintain  sufficient  heat. 


Fig.    128. 

EUROPEAN  COMMON  HIVES  PROTECTED  BY  STRAW. 

(From  Hamet. ) 

Bees,  in  small  or  contracted  hives,  especially  when  deprived 
of  all  the  honey  gathered  in  Spring,  as  stated  before  (629), 
have  too  scanty  a  population  for  a  successful  wintering,  espe- 
cially out  of  doors;  for,  as  it  is  by  eating  that  bees  generate 
warmth,  the  abdomens  of  a  small  number  are  soon  filled  with 
residues,  and  if  the  cold  continues  for  weeks  the  bees  get  the 
diarrhoea  (784).  We  have  often  seen  colonies  in  small  hives 
perishing  side  by  side  Avith  large  ones  whose  bees  were  very 
healthy. 


348  WINTERING. 

Such  facts  abound,  and  we  have  but  to  open  tlie  bee-jour- 
nals to  find  the  confirmation  of  our  statement. 

In  the  American  Bee- Journal  for  Februaiy  S,  1888.  page 
83,  Mr.  J.  P.  Stone  of  Holly,  Mich.,  asks  why  a  colony^ 
which  was  hived  in  1859  in  a  large  box,  is  prospering  yet, 
while  others  have  perished.  The  size  given,  16X16X22,  which" 
shows  that  the  box  has  twice  the  capacity  of  an  S-frame 
Langstioth  hive,  answers  his  question. 

In  tlie  following  number  of  the  same  journal,  page  107, 
Mr.  Heddon  mentions  a  colony  which  had  wintered  safely 
for  seven  years  in  a  box  ten  times  larger  than  the  Langstroth, 
while  many  others  died  by  its  side.  "The  colony,  when  trans- 
ferred, contained  about  double  the  number  of  bees  usually 
raised  from  one  queen." 

Yet  small  colonies  can  be  safely  wintered  out  of  doors,  if 
their  combs  and  honej-  are  not  spread  over  a  large  space, 
and  if  they  are  sheltered  so  as  to  maintain  the  proper  heat. 
It  is  therefore  indispensable  to  reduce  the  combs  of  a  hive  to 
the  amount  of  room  which  the  bees  can  best  keep  warm,  bj* 
the  use  of  the  division  or  contracting  board  (349),  leaving  a 
sufficient  supply  of  good  honey,  supply  which,  sometimes, 
mav  be  taken  from  too  rich  colonies. 


UNITrNG. 

633.  A  queenless  colony,  in  the  Fall,  should  always  be 
united  to  some  other  hive. 

If  two  or  more  colonies,  which  are  to  be  united,  are  not 
close  together,  their  hives  must  be  gradually  drawn  nearer, 
and  the  bees  may  then,  with  proper  precautions,  be  put  into 
the  same  hive.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  well  to  kill  the  poorest 
queen  (if  both  have  queens)  and  keep  the  best.  This  may  be 
dispensed  with,  but  the  prudent  bee-keeper  will  never  neglect 
an  opportunity  to  improve  his  stock.  On  a  cool  November 
day,  the  combs  of  the  weaker  colony  that  bear  the  cluster, 
should  be  lifted  all  together,  and  inserted  in  the  other  hive, 


OUT-DOOR  SHELTERING.  349 

after  the  bees  of  the  latter  have  been  thoroughly  frightened 
with  smoke.   (382.) 

631.  If,  when  two  colonies  are  put  together,  the  bees  in 
the  one  on  the  old  stand  are  not  gorged  with  honey,  they 
will  often  attack  the  others,  and  speedily  sting  them  to  death, 
in  spite  of  all  their  attempts  to  purchase  immunity,  by  offer- 
ing their  honey.  The  late  Wm.  W.  Cary,  of  Coleraine,  Mas- 
sachusetts, who  was  an  accurate  observer  of  the  habits  of  bees, 
united  colonies  very  successfully,  by  alarming  those  that  were 
on  the  old  stand  j  as  soon  as  they  showed  by  their  notes,  that 
they  were  subdued,  he  gave  them  the  new-comers.  The  alarm 
which  causes  them  to  gorge  themselves  with  honey,  puts  them, 
doubtless,  upon  their  good  behavior,  long  enough  to  give  the 
others  a  fair  chance. 

They  can  also  be  made  to  unite  peaceably,  by  sprinkling  a 
little  sweet-scented  water  on  them  (4:85).  It  is  well  to  put 
a  slanting  board  in  front  of  the  entrance  (603)  to  show  the 
moved  bees  that  their  location  is  changed.  The  empty  hive 
should  be  removed  from  its  place  to  prevent  the  bees  from 
returning  to  it.  The  number  of  combs  in  the  united  colony 
may  be  reduced  as  soon  as  the  bees  have  all  clustered  together. 

In  this  manner  a  strong  colony  with  little  honey,  and  a 
weak  one  with  plenty  of  stores,  may  be  united  to  form  a  good 
hive  of  bees. 

Out-Door  Sheltering. 

635.  The  moving  of  a  colony  to  a  warmer  or  better 
sheltered  place,  just  before  Winter,  is  not  advisable,  for  many 
bees,  not  having  noticed  their  new  location,  would  i)erish  of 
cold,  while  searching  for  their  home,  and  the  population  would 
be  greatly  decreased. 

In  our  Northern,  Middle  and  Western  States,  the  style  of 
hive  used  has  a  considerable  influence  on  the  safety  of  out- 
door wintering. 

With  hives  that  are  shigle-walled  all  aroimd,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  shelter  the  bees  from  the  piercing  winds, 


350 


WlNTJiRlNU. 


wliieli  in  Winter  so  powerfully  exhaust  their  animal  heat; 
for,  like  human  beings,  if  sheltered  from  the  wind,  they  will 
endure  a  low  temperature  far  better  than  a  continuous  current 
of  very  much  warmer  air. 

In  some  parts  of  the  West,  where  bees  suffer  much  from 
cold  winds,  their  hives  are  protected,  in  ^^'inter,  by  sheaves 
of  straw,  fastened  so  as  to  defend  them  from  both  cold  and 
wet.  With  a  little  ingenuity,  farmers  might  easily  turn  their 
waste  straw  to  a  valuable  account  in  sheltering  their  bees. 

Not  only  can  straw  be  used  for  this  purpose  with  much 
service,  but  also  forest  leaves,  corn  fodder,  and  rushec.  Snow 
is  found  to  be  a  veiy  good  shelter,  provided  its  successive 
meltmg  and  freezing  does  not  interfere  with  the  necessaiy 
ventilation.  It  must  be  removed  from  the  entrance  on  the 
approach  of  a  warm  day. 


Fig.    128   bis. 

WINTER     PACKING    AKOUNU    THE     HIVE. 


Mr.  Geo.  H.  Beard,  of  Winchester,  Mo.,  safely  wintered 
ninety-three  colonies  out  of  ninety-six,  in  the  severe  Winter 
of  1884-5,  in  the  lower  apartment  of  two-stoiy  Langstroth 
1  jives,  by  removing  the  oil-cloth  and  replacing  it  with  coarse 


OUT-DOOR  SHELTERING.  351 

sack-clotli,  tiiiing  liie  upper  story  with  maple  leaves,  and 
covering  the  hives,  on  all  sides,  except  the  front,  with  what  is 
commonly  known  as  slough-grass.  This  success  is  worthy  of 
notice,  for  in  that  memorable  Whiter,  more  than  two-thirds  of 
the  bees  m  the  Northern  States  died,  some  Apiarists  losing- 
all  they  had.  Like  that  of  1S55-6,  it  will  long  be  remembered, 
not  only  for  the  uiicouuuon  deg-ree  and  duration  of  its  cold, 
but  for  the  tremendous  wnids,  which,  often  for  days  together, 
swept  like  a  Polar  blast  over  the  land. 

We  have,  for  years,  whitered  part  of  our  bees  on  the  Sum- 
mer stand,  by  sheltering  them  on  all  sides  but  the  front,  with 
forest  leaves  closely  packed,  and  held  with  a  frame-work  of 
lath,  or  ladder. 

636.  One  of  the  most  important  requirements  for  success- 
ful out-door  winterhig,  is  the  placing  of  warm  absorbents, 
innuediately  over  the  cluster,  to  imbibe  the  excess  of  moisture 
that  rises  from  the  bees,  without  allowing  the  heat  to  escape. 

In  March,  185(3,  we  lost  some  of  our  best  colonies,  under 
the  foHowmg  circumstances:  The  Winter  had  been  intensely 
cold,  and  the  hives,  having  no  upward  ventilation  or  moisture 
absorbents,  were  filled  with  frost  — in  some  instances,  the  ice 
on  their  glass  sides  being  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 
A  few  days  of  mild  weather^  in  which  the  frost  began  to 
thaw,  were  followed  by  a  severely  cold  spell  with  the  ther- 
mometer below  zero,  accompanied  bj^  raging  winds,  and  in 
many  of  the  hiveSj  the  bees,  which  were  still  wet  from  the 
thaw,  were  frozen  together  in  an  almost  solid  mass. 

As  long  as  the  vapor  remains  congealed,  it  can  injure  the 
bees  only  by  keeping  them  from  stores  which  they  need;  but, 
as  soon  as  a  thaw  sets  in,  hives  which  have  no  upward  ab- 
sorbents are  in  danger  of  being  ruined. 

Mr.  E.  T.  Sturtevant.  of  East  Cleveland,  Oliio,  once  known 
as  an  experienced  Apiarist,  thus  gave  his  experience  in  win- 
tering bees  in  the  open  air: 

''Xo  extr?mity  of  cold  that  we  ever  have  in  this  climate, 
will  injure  bees,  if  their  breath  is  allowed  to  pass  off,  so  that 


352  WIXTERIXG. 

they   are    dry.      1   never   lost   a    good   colony   that    was   dry,   and 
had  plenty  of  honey. ' ' 

The  absorbents  generally  used  are  chali'  in  cushions,  straw, 
forest  leaves  (maple  leaves  preferred),  com  cobs,  woolen 
rags,  or  wool  waste,  etc.  ^Ir.  Cheshire  used  cork-dust,  which 
he  claimed  gave  fourteen  times  as  much  protection  as  a  dead- 
air  space.  The  oil-cloth,  which  makes  an  air-tight  covering, 
must  be  first  removed,  and  if  no  straw-mat  is  used,  the  cushion 
of  absorbents  may  be  placed  right  over  the  frames.  We  use 
the  straw-mat,  and  fill  the  upper  half-stoiy  with  diy  leaves, 
these  being  the  cheapest  and  best  absorbent  at  our  command. 

In  the  coldest  parts  of  our  countiy,  if  upward  absorbents 
are  neglected,  no  amount  of  protection  that  can  be  given  to 
hives,  in  the  open  air,  will  prevent  them  from  becoming  damp 
and  mouldy,  even  if  frost  is  excluded,  unless  a  large  amomit 
of  lower  ventilation  is  given.  Then  they  need  as  much  air  as 
in  Summer.  Often,  the  more  they  are  protected,  the  greater 
the  risk  from  dampness.  A  very  thin  hive  unpainted,  so  that 
it  may  readily  absorb  the  heat  of  the  sun,  will  dry  inside  much 
sooner  than  one  painted  white,  and  in  every  way  most  thor- 
oughly protected  against  the  cold.  The  first,  like  a  garret,  will 
suffer  from  dampness  for  a  short  time  only;  while  the  other, 
like  a  cellar,  may  be  so  long  in  drying,  as  to  injure,  if  not 
destroy,  the  bees. 

Some  apiarists  have  objected  to  this  paragraph,  because 
they  have  never  had  the  experience  mentioned  in  the  two 
Winters  above  named.  Such  Winters  are  rare,  but  we  must 
be  prepared  for  a  recurrence  of  similar  conditions,  as  we  too 
often  liave  Winters  similar  to  those  of  Siberia. 

637.  If  the  colonies  are  wintered  in  the  open  air,  the  en- 
trance to  their  hives  must  be  large  enough  to  allow  the  bees  to 
fly  at  will.  Many,  it  is  true,  will  be  lost,  but  a  large  part 
of  these  are  diseased ;  and,  even  if  thej-  were  not,  it  is  better 
to  lose  some  healthy  bees  than  to  incur  the  risk  of  losing,  or 
greatly  injuring,  a  wliole  colony  by  the  excitement  .created  by 


OrT-DOOK   SHKLTKKiX(j. 


353 


confinmg   them   wlieii   the   weather  is  warm  enough  to  enliee 
them  abroad. 

If  the  sun  is  warm  and  the  gi'ound  covered  with  new-fallen 
snow,  the  light  may  so  blind  the  bees,  that  they  will  fall  into 
this  fleecy  snow,  and  quickly  perish.  Even  at  such  times,  it  is 
hardly  advisable  to  confine  them  to  their  hives.  A  neighbor 
of  ours  killed  four  colonies,  all  he  had,  by  closmg  the  en- 
trances witli  wire-cloth  for  Winter.  We  had  advised  him  to 
remove  it,  but  he  did  not  do  so  because  some  one  had  told 
him  that  his  bees  would  set  lost  in  the  snow. 


Fig.    129. 

THE     CLOISTER     HIVE. 


638.  In  some  countries,  as  in  parts  of  France,  or  Eng- 
land, the  weather  is  often  for  weeks  just  chilly  enough  to  make 
it  necessary-  for  the  bees  to  remain  in  the  hive,  as  those  who 
take   advantage   of   an    occasional    ray   of   sun    light   become 


354 


WlXTERlXi; 


chilled  before  they  can  go  far,  and  j'et  there  are  no  very  cold 
days.  In  such  countries  the  confining  of  them  to  the  hive  is 
not  objectionable,  because  they  ^have  not  consumed  large  quan- 
tities of  honey  at  any  time  and  do  not  become  rpstless.  For 
this  reason  Mr.  Gouttefangeas,  of  Noiretable,  France,  has 
devised  what  he  calls  a  "cloister."  The  hive  is  made  with  a 
portico,  the  alighting  board  is  hinged  on  the  bottom  and  raised 


Fig.    130. 

TWO-STOKV     DOUBLE-WALLED     LANGSTROTH     HIVE,     OLD     .STYLE. 


up  SO  as  to  close  the  hive  when  there  is  any  necessity  of 
confining  the  bees  to  the  hive.  Two  tubes  pierced  with  holes 
at  their  lower  end  serve  for  air,  and  light  is  excluded.  With 
the  use  of  this  "cloister"  the  bees  are  confined  in  a  way  that 
keeps  them  quiet,  for  the}'  see  no  light  and  the  rays  of  the 
sun  do  not  attract  them  to  the  field.  But  this  implement  must 
be  used  sparingly,  for  should  a  warm  day  come,  the  bees 
would  become  restless  in  spite  of  the  darkness  and  the  con- 
finement would  be  more  injurious  to  tliem  than  freedom.  Mr. 
Gouttefangeas  claims  for  this  invention  a  number  of  advan- 
tages, as  it  permits  him  to  confine  the  bees  without  danger 
whenever  there  is  chance  of  their  being  lost  by  sallying  forth 


OUT-DUOR    8HELTEKIN(-i 


355 


in  bad  weather.     In  the  iiot  and  cold  clhnate  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  the  cloister  could  be  used  but  little. 

Great  injuiy  is  often  done  by  disturbing  a  colony  of  bees 
when  the  weather  is  so  cold  that  they  cannot  fly.     Many  that 


Fig.    131. 

IXSIDE     VIEW     OF     TWO-STORY     DOLBLE-WALL     LAXGSTROTH     HIVE. 

Old   .Style. 

a,  b,  c,  double  bottom-board.  d,  stationary  outer-case.  /,  portico, 
r/,  entrance  through  double  wall,  h,  i,  front  and  back  of  lower  hive. 
;,  z,  rabbetted  pieces.  /,  lower  honey-board,  m,  lower  part  of  cover, 
o,  q,  cover,  r,  upper  honey-board,  u,  u,  t,  frames,  iv,  front  and  rear 
of  upper   story. 


are  tempted  to  leave  the  cluster,  perish  before  they  can  regain 
it,  and  eveiy  disturbance,  by  rousing  them  to  needless  activity, 
causes  an  increased  consumption  of  food.     On  the  other  hand, 


356 


WINTERING. 


it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  they  be  allowed  to  fly  and 
void  their  excrements  (73)  whenever  the  weather  is  warm 
enough.  At  such  times  it  will  be  advisable  to  clean  the  bottom- 
boards  of  hives,  of  dead  bees,  and  other  refuse. 

639.  To  show  the  advantages  derived  by  the  bees  from 
a  Winter  flight,  we  will  give  our  experience  during  one  of 
the  coldest  Winters,  that  of  1S72-3.  From  the  beginning 
of  December  to  the  middle  of  January,  the  weather  was 
cold  and  the  bees  were  unable  to  leave  the  hive.     The  16th 


Fig.    132. 

noUBLE-WAI.L     COWAN     HIVE. 

(From    Cheshire.) 
ab,    apron-board,      e,    entrance,     p,    portico,     hs^     hollow    space,     tr, 
tunnel-roof    or    cover    to    entrance,      he,    hive    case,     sc,    surplus    case. 
r,    roof. 


of  January  was  a  rather  pleasant  day.  We  took  occasion 
of  this  to  examine  our  weak  colonies,  being  anxious  in  re- 
gard to  their  '  condition.  To  our  astonishment,  they  were 
found  alive,  and  our  disturbing  them  caused  them  to  fly  and 
discharge  their  excrements.  Being  convinced  that  all  our  bees 
were  safe,  we  did  not  disturb  the  strong  colonies,  and  a  few 


Plate  21. 


T.  W.  COWAN,  F.  G.  S.,  F.  R.  M.  S. 

Editor  of  the  ''British  Bee  Journal.'' 

Author  of   "The  British  Bee-Keeper's  Oulde  Book''  and  of   '"/7j€ 

Honey  Bee.'" 

This    writer   is   mentioned    pages  12,    146,    195,    239,   356.   469:    4"9-   4S'.>, 

481,    487. 


SHELTERING. 


357 


of  the  latter  remained  quiet.  The  next  day,  the  cold  weather 
returned,  and  lasted  three  weeks  longer.  Then  we  discovered 
that  the  weak  colonies,  that  had  had  a  cleansing  flight,  were 
alive  and  well,  while  the  strong  ones  which  had  remained  con- 
Hned,  were  either  dead  or  in  bad  condition. 

640.  In  order  to  shelter  bees  more  efficiently,  in  outdoor 
wintermg,  against  climatic  influences,  Apiarists  have  devised 
hives,  with  double  walls,  filled  at  the  sides,  as  well  as  on  top, 
with  some  light  material  non-conductor  of  heat.  Some  are 
made  on  the  same  principle  as  the  old  two-story  double-wall 
L.  hive   (fig.  131)  without  packing. 


Fig.   133. 

ROOT    CHAFF    HIVE. 

(A   B    C  of   Bee-Culture.) 


The  most  wide-spread  style,  is  the  chaff-hive,  of  A.  I. 
Root.  This  hive  is  far  superior  to  single-wall  hives  for  out- 
door wintering.  It  w^as  formerly  made  in  two  stories,  all  in 
one  piece,  which  rendered  it  very  inconvenient.  They  now 
make  it  as  we  made  ours  for  years.  The  cap  may  be  filled  with 
chaff,  di-y  leaves,  or  a  cushion  of  any  warm  material.  Some 
Apiarists    also   use    one-story    chaff-hives   with    loose    bottom- 


358 


WINTERING 


boards    that    can    be    taken    off   to    remove    the    dead   bees   in 
Spring. 

641.  After  having  used  some  eighty  chaff-hives  during 
twent3'-five  years  or  more,  we  find  two  disadvantages  in  them: 
1st.  Thej'^  are  hea\'y  and  inconvenient  to  handle,  especially 
when  made  to  accommodate  ten  large  Dadant  frames.    2d.     As 


Fig.    134. 

INSIDK     OF    THE    CHESHIRE    HIVE. 

Jis,  hives  sides  with  cork-dust  for  packing,     sc,  section  case. 
s,   separators,      fn,   foundation. 


section. 


they  do  not  allow  the  heat  or  cold  to  pass  in  and  out  readily, 
the  bees  in  these  hives  may  remain  in-doors,  in  occasional 
warm  AVinter  days,  while  those  of  thin-front  hives  will  have 
a  cleansing  flight.  Thus,  in  hard  Winters,  these  bees  suffer  as 
much  from  diarrhoea  ( 626-784:)  as  others,  unless  the  Apiar- 
ist takes  pains  to  disturb  them  and  make  them  fly,  occasionally, 
in  suitable  Aveather. 


SHELTERING. 


359 


642.  But  we  highly  recoiiiinend  the  use  of  these  hives, 
to  the  bee-keepers  who  do  not  wish  to  go  to  the  trouble  of 
sheltering  their  bees  e\ery  Winter.  With  the  chaff-hive,  it 
is  a  matter  of  only  a  few  minutes  to  put  into  Winter-quarters 
a  colony  that  has  sufficient  stores  and  beesj  As  to  the  ad- 
vantage, claimed  for  these  hives^  of  keeping  weak  'colonies 
warm,  in  the  Spring,  we  found  it  counterbalanced  by  the  loss 


As   u?ed  by  J.   G. 


Fig.    135. 

OUTER     COVERING. 

Norton  and  others.      One  side  is  removed  to  show  the 
hive  within. 


of  the  sun's  heat  during  the  first  warm  days,  and  we  found 
that  bees  bred  as  fast,  in  our  ordinary  hives  (double  onlj^  on 
the  windward  sides)  owing  to  the  quick  absorption  of  the 
sun's  rays  by  the  boards. 

643.  To  obtain  the  advantages  of  the  chaff-hive  without 
any  of  its  disadvantages  and  at  the  same  time  retain  in  use 
the  single-wall  Langstroth  or  dovetailed  hives,  some  bee- 
keepers have  devised  outer-boxes  to  be  placed  over  the  colonies 
durmg  Winter,  and  removed  in  Spring.     These  can  be  filled 


3(50  WINTERING. 

with  absorbents,  and  make  the  best  and  safest  out-door  shel- 
ters (Fig.  135).  They  are  only  hooked  together  by  nails 
partly  driven,  and  are  taken  off  in  pieces,  in  the  Spring  and 
put  away,  under  shelter.  The  roofs  may  be  used  over  the 
hives  all  Summer,  if  desirable.  The  only  disadvantage  of 
outer-boxes  is  that  they  may  harbor  mice  or  insects.  Some 
use  them,  without  any  packing,  and  we  know  by  experience, 
that  even  in  this  way,  veiy  small  colonies  may  be  wintered 
safely.  If  the  hive  has  a  portico,  the  front  of  the  box  is 
made  to  fit  around  it.  In  any  case,  the  portico  itself  can  be 
closed,  during  the  coldest  weather,  by  a  door  fitting  over  it, 
but  it  must  be  opened  on  warm  days.  In  the  extraordinary 
Winter  of  1884-5,  several  bee-keepers  of  McDonough  Coun.y, 
Illinois,  among  whom,  we  will  cite  Mr.  J.  G.  Norton,  of  Ma- 
comb, safely  wintered  their  Simplicity  hives  with  this  method, 
wliile  their  neighbors  lost  all,  or  nearly  all,  their  bees. 

64:4:.  If  the  colonies  are  strong  in  numbers  and  stores,  have 
tipper  moisture  absorbents,  easy  communication  from  comb  to 
comb,  good  ripe  honey,  shelter  from  piercing  winds,  and  can 
have  a  cleansing  flight  once  a  month,  they  have  all  the  con- 
ditions essential  to  wintering  successfully  in  the  open  air. 

In-door  Wintering. 

645.  In  some  parts  of  Europe,  it  is  customary  to  winter 
all  the  bees  of  a  village  in  a  common  vault  or  cellar.  Dziei'zon 
says : 

*'A  dry  cellar  is  very  well  adapted  for  wintering  bees,  even 
though  it  is  not  wholly  secure  from  frost;  the  temperature  will 
be  much  milder,  and  more  uniform  than  in  the  open  air;  the 
bees  will  be  more  secure  from  disturbance,  and  will  be  pro- 
tected from  the  piercing  cold  winds,  which  cause  more  injury 
than  the  greatest  degree  of  cold  when  the  air  is  calm. 

"Universal  experience  teaches  that  the  more  effectually  bees 
are  protected  from  disturbance  and  from  the  variations  of 
temperature,  the  better  will  they  pass  the  Winter,  the  less  will 


IX-DOOR   WINTER IXt;.  361 

they  consume  of  their  stores,  and  the  more  vigorous  and  num- 
erous will  they  be  in  the  Spring.  I  have,  therefore,  constructed 
a  special  Winter  repository  for  my  bees,  near  my  apiary.  It  is 
weather-boarded  both  outside  and  within,  and  the  intervening 
space  is  filled  with  hay  or  tan,  etc.;  the  ground  and  plat  en- 
closed is  dug  out  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet,  so  as  to 
secure  a  more  moderate  and  equitable  temperature.  When  my 
hives  are  placed  in  this  depository,  and  the  door  locked,  the 
darkness,  uniform  temperature,  and  entire  repose  the  bees  enjoy, 
enable  them  to  pass  the  Winter  securely.  I  usually  place  here 
my  weaker  colonies,  and  those  whose  hives  are  not  made  of 
the  warmest  materials,  and  they  always  do  well.  If  such  a 
structure  is  to  be  partly  underground,  a  very  dry  site  must 
be  selected  for  it." 

In  Russia,  bee-keepers  dig  a  well  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  feet  deep,  and  six  or  eight  feet  wide.  The  hives,  which 
there,  are  hollow  trees,  are  then  piled  horizontally  upon  one 
another,  like  cord-wood,  with  one  end  open.  The  well  is  filled 
to  within  six  feet  of  the  top,  and  a  shed,  made  of  straw,  is 
built  above.  The  bees  are  left  there  during  the  five  or  six 
months  of  Winter.  But  Russia  is  fast  adopting  the  methods 
of  advanced  countries  and  they  are  beginning  to  use  our  hives 
and  winter  bees  much  on  our  plan. 

In  some  other  countries,  they  are  kept  in  caves,  abandoned 
mines,  or  any  under-ground  place  near  at  hand. 

646.  In  the  North  of  the  United  States,  and  in  Canada, 
they  are  generally  wintered  in  cellars,  and  remain  there  in 
quiet  from  November  till  March  or  April,  sometimes  till  May. 

In  all  localities,  where  the  bees  cannot  fly  at  least  once  a 
month,  m  the  \Yinter,  it  is  best  to  follow  this  method  of 
wintering. 

As  Dzierzon  says,  a  dry  cellar  is  the  best,  although  bees 
can  be  wintered  in  a  (Zamp  cellar,  but  with  more  danger  of 
loss,  especially  if  ^he  food  is  not  of  the  best. 

647.  In  the  first  place,  the  bees  should  be  moved  to  the 
cellar,  just  after  they  have  had  a  day's  flight,  at  the  opening 
of  cold  weather.     It  is  better  to  put  them  in  a  little  early  than 


362  wixterint;. 

run  the  risk  of  putting  them  away  after  they  have  been  ex- 
posed to  a  long  cold  spell. 

Dr.  C.  C.  Miller,  who  is  one  of  the  best  authorities,  be- 
cause he  is  much  exjierieneed  and  a  very  good  observer,  says 
this  on  the  proper  time  to  take  them  in: 

"It  is  a  thing  impossible  to  know  beforehand  just  what  is 
the  best  time  to  take  bees  into  the  cellar.  At  best  it  can  only 
be  a  guess.  Living  in  a  region  where  winters  are  severe,  there 
are  some  years  in  which  there  will  be  no  chance  for  bees  to 
have  a  flight  after  the  middle  of  November  and  I  think  there 
was  one  year  without  a  flight  after  the  first  of  November 
(Northern  Illinois).  One  feels  badly  to  put  his  bees  into  the 
cellar  the  first  week  in  November  and  then  two  or  three  weeks 
later  have  a  beautiful  day.  But  he  feels  a  good  deal  worse  after 
a  good  flight-day  the  first  week  in  November  to  wait  for  a  later 
flight,  then  have  it  turn  very  cold,  and  after  waiting  through 
two  or  three  weeks  of  such  weather,  to  give  up  hope  of  any 
later  flight  and  put  his  bees  in  after  two  or  three  weeks'  en- 
durance of  severe  freezing.  So  it  is  better  to  err  on  the  side 
of  getting  bees  in  too  early." — (Forty  Years  Among  the  Bees, 
page  292.) 

We  take  only  the  brood-apartment  leavmg  the  cap,  and 
sometimes  the  bottom-board,  on  the  Summer  stand,  bein.*;' 
careful  to  mark  the  number  of  each  hive  inside  of  its  cap*  so 
as  to  return  it  to  the  same  location  in  Spring  (32-33).  Not 
all  bee-keepers  do  this  but  we  know  that  it  helps.  In  the 
cellar,  the  hives  are  piled  one  upon  another.  An  empty  hive 
or  a  box  is  put  at  the  bottom  of  each. pile,  so  that  r.he  bees 
will  be  as  high  up  from  the  damp  ground  as  possible.  If 
the  bottom-board  is  brought  in  with  the  hive,  tho  entrance 
should  be  left  open.  It  is  well  to  raise  the  lower  tier  of  hives 
from  their  bottoms  with  entrance-blocks,  unless  they  have 
good  lower  vc^ntilation  without  this.  Some  upper  ventilation 
had  better  be  given  also,  for  the  escape  of  moisture.     If  the 

*  In  a  well-regulated  apiary,  each  hive  bears  a  number  painted  on 
the  body,  or  a  number  tag  fastenod  in   some  way. 


IX-DOOR   WINTERING. 


363 


cellar  is  damp,  the  couibs  will  mould  more  or  less;  if  it  is  dry, 
they  will  keep  in  perfect  order. 

648.  After  the  bees  are  put  in,  they  should  be  left  in 
darkness,  at  the  temperature  that  will  keep  them  the  quietest. 
We  find  that  from  42^  to  45°  is  the  best.  Every  Apiarist 
should  have  a  thermometer,  and  use  it.  The  cost  is  insigiiifi- 
cant,  and  it  will  pay  for  itself  many  times. 


Fig.    136. 

CELLAR     BLIND,     TO     GIVE     AIR     WITHOUT     LIGHT. 

But  thermometers  vary,  especially  the  cheap  ones.  Try  to 
find  at  what  temperature,  with  ijonr  thermometer  in  your 
cellar,  they  are  the  quietest,  and  then  aim  to  keep  it  at  that. 

The  fact  that  bees,  in  Russia  (645),  are  confined  in  deep 
wells,  for  six  months,  shows  that  a  total  deprivation  of  light 
cannot  be  injurious.  It  prevents  them  from  flying  out  of 
their  hives,  to  which  they  would  be  unable  to  return,  after 
flying  to  the  windows,  allured  by  the  light,  when  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  cellar  rises  occasionally  and  unexpectedly  to  50 
or  60  degrees. 


364 


WINTERING. 


As  bees,  wintered  on  tlieir  Summer  stands,  begin  to  fly  out 
when  the  temperature  in  the  shade  reaches  about  50  degrees, 
and  are  in  full  flight  at  about  55,  one  can  imagine  how  rest- 
less they  become  when  the  temperature  of  the  cellar  rises  to 
55  or  60  degrees.  They  wait  impatiently  for  the  dawn  of 
the  day  which  will  afford  them  the  opportunity  for  flying  out. 
But  as  the  days  pass  and  darkness  continues  they  are  uneasy 
and  tired. 


Fig.   137. 

CELLAR  BLIND  IN  PLACE. 


The  warmth  incites  them  also  to  breeds  and  as  they  need 
water  for  their  brood  (271),  some  leave  the  hive  in  quest 
of  it  and  are  lost.  This  happens  more  or  less  every  Winter. 
To  cool  the  air  of  the  cellar,  ice  may  be  brought  in  and 
allowed  to  melt  slowly  over  a  tub. 

The  Apiarist  must  guard  against  cold,  also,  but  in  winter- 
ing a  large  number  of  colonies,  the  heat  which  they  generate 


IN-DOOR    WIXTERING.  365 

will  usually  keep  the  cellar  quite  warm  in  the  coldest  weather. 
Ill  our  experience,  we  have  had  to  keep  the  cellar  windows 
open,  often,  in  cold  weather. 

649.  To  allow  cold  air  to  enter  without  givin*^'  light,  we 
have  devised  cellar  blinds  (figs.  136-137).  When  the  window^, 
inside,  is  raised,  a  wire-cloth  frame  is  put  in  its  place  to 
keep  mice  out,  and  there  is  a  slide  on  the  inside  of  the  shutter 
which  can  be  used  to  give  more  or  less  air  as  the  case  requires. 
Besides,  the  windows  of  our  bee-cellar  are  made  with  double 
panes,  to  exclude  cold  or  heat  more  efficiently,  when  they  are 
shut.     A  slight  quantity  of  pure  air  is  needed  at  all  times. 

As  we  have  said  above,  when  the  warmer  days  of  Sprmg 
come,  with  alternates  of  cold,  the  bees  will  breed  a  little, 
and  if  this  is  not  begun  too  early,  it  will  be  a  help  to  them 
rather  than  an  injury,  for  they  will  become  strong,  all  the 
sooner,  after  being  taken  out.  * 

650.  A  small  number  of  colonies  can  be  wintered  in  any 
ordinary  cellar,  quite  safely,  when  their  food  is  of  good  qual- 
ity, and  the  temperature  does  not  vary  too  much,  but  they 
must  be  quiet  and  in  the  dark. 

651.  If  the  temperature  of  the  cellar  is  too  low^,  or  too 
high,  or  if  the  food  is  unhealthy,  the  bees  will  have  a  large 
amount  of  fecal  accumulation  in  their  intestines,  and  will 
show  their  anxiety  by  coming  out  of  the  hive  in  clusters, 
during  the  latter  part  of  their  confinement.  If,  in  addition 
to  this,  the  cellar  is  damp,  the  comb  will  mould;  and  when 
taken  out,  some  colonies  may  desert  (407,  663)  their  hives. 

652.  Great  loss  may  be  incurred  in  replacing,  upon  their 
Summer  stands,  the  colonies  which  have  been  kept  in  special 
depositories.  Unless  the  day  when  they  are  put  out  is  very 
favorable,  many  will  be  lost  when  they  fly  to  discharge  their 
faeces.  In  movable-frame  hives^  this  risk  can  be  greatly 
dimmished,  by  removing  tlie  cover  from  the  frames,  and  allow- 
ing the  sun  to  shine  directly  upon  the  bees;  this  will  warm 
^hem  up  so  quickly,  that  they  will  all  discharge  their  faeces  in 
iv  very  short  time. 


366  WINTERING. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  Mr.  Langstroth's  journal: 

"Jan.  31st,  1857. — Removed  the  upper  cover,  exposing  the 
bees  to  the  full  heat  of  the  sun,  the  thermometer  being  30  de- 
grees in  the  shade,  and  the  atmosphere  calm.  The  hive  stand- 
ing on  the  sunny  side  of  the  house,  the  bees  quickly  took  wing 
and  discharged  their  fa-ces.  Very  few  were  lost  on  the  snow, 
and  nearly  all  that  alighted  on  it  took  wing  without  being 
chilled.  More  bees  were  lost  from  other  hives  which  were  not 
opened,  as  few  which  left  were  able  to  return;  while,  in  the 
one  with  the  cover  removed,  the  returning  bets  were  able  to 
alight  at  once  among  their  warm  companions." 

653.  If  more  than  one  hundred  colonies  are  wintered  in 
the  cellar,  and  it  is  desired  to  remove  them  all  the  same  day, 
enough  liel})  should  be  secured  to  put  them  all  on  Jieir  staiuK 
before  the  warm  part  of  the  day  is  over.  It  is  far  better  to 
keep  them  in  the  cellar  even  one  week  longer,  than  to  take 
them  out  when  the  weather  is  so  cold  that  they  cannot  cleanse 
themselves  innnediately ;  to  our  mind,  45-^  in  the  shade,  is  the 
lowest  temj^erature  in  which  it  is  best  to  put  bees  out. 

654.  As  bees  remember  their  location,  it  is  important  to 
return  each  colony  to  its  own  place.  If  this  is  not  done,  the 
confusion  maij  cause  some  colonies  to  ahandon  their  hives. 
Dzierzon  also  advises  placing  them  on  their  former  stands,  as 
many  bees  still  remember  the  old  spot. 

This,  however,  is  le.ss  important  in  locations  where  the 
confinement  lasts  a  veiy  long  time,  as  it  does  in  very  eold 
countries.  If  it  is  desirable  to  remove  some  hives  to  a  new 
location,  a  slanting  board  (603  his)  should  be  placed  in  front 
of  the  hive.  All  the  bottom  boards  should  be  cleaned  of  dead 
bees  or  rubbish,  without  delay. 

655.  If  the  hives  of  an  apiaiy  are  all  removed  from  the 
cellar  on  the  same  day,  there  will  be  but  little  danger  of 
robbing,  for  they  are  somewhat  bewildered  when  first  brought 
out;  but  if  some  are  taken  out  later  than  others,  the  last 
removed  will  be  in  danger,  unless  some  precautions  are  taken. 

656.  If    the   bees    that    are   winterino-   in    the    cellar,    are 


IN-DOOK    WINTERING. 


367 


found  to  be  restless,  it  may  be  good  policy  to  give  them  some 
water  (271),  or  to  take  them  out  on  a  warm  day  when  the 
temperature  is  at  least  45^   in  the  shade,  to  let  them  have  a 


Fig.    138.      (From   L'Apicoltore,   of   Milan.) 

BEE    CLAMP    FOR   WINTERING. 

1,    air   draft,     d,    roof. 

(light,  and  return  them  to  the  cellar  aftenvard.     We  do  not 
advise  it  as  a  practice  howcvei'.     On  the  contrary,  if  they  are 


Fig.  139. 

HOW    TO    PILE    THE    HIVES. 


Fig.    140. 

GROUND  PLAN  OF  A  BEE  CLAMP. 


quiet,  it  is  better  to  keep  them  indoors,  till  the  early  Spring- 
days  have  fairly  come,  to  avoid  what  is  called  Spring-dwind- 
ling (659). 


368  WINTERING. 

657.  Tlu)se.  wlio  have  no  eellai',  can  sueeessfuUy  winter 
their  bees  iii  clamps  or  silos  as  advised  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Scholz, 
of  Lower  Silesia^  already  mentioned  in  several  instances. 
These  clamps  are  made  similar  to  those  in  which  farmers 
place  apples,  potatoes,  turnips,  etc.,  to  preser\'e  them  during 
cold  weather.  The  only  objection  to  this  mode,  is  the  damp- 
ness of  the  groimd  in  wet  and  warm  Winters.  The  hives  are 
put,  on  a  bed  of  straw,  in  a  pyramidal  form  (fig*.  139),  and 
covered,  first  with  old  boards,  then  with  a  thick  layer  of 
straw,  and  another,  of  earth.  Wooden  pipes  are  placed  at  the 
bottom  (fig.  140),  and  one  in  the  shape  of  a  chimney,  at  the 
top,  for  an  air-draft.  The  requisites  are  the  same  as  in  cellar 
wintering,  an  equal  temperature,  sufficient  ventilation,  a  fairly 
dry  atmosphere,  and  quiet. 

658.  We  must  warn  novices  against  the  wintering  of  bees 
in  any  repository  in  which  the  temperature  descends  below 
the  freezing  point.  In  such  places  the  bees  consume  a  great 
deal  of  honey,  and  they  soon  become  restless,  for  want  of  a 
flight.  Their  Summer  stand,  even  without  shelter,  is  far  safer 
than  any  such  place,  because  they  can  at  least  take  advantage 
of  any  warm  Winter  day  to  void  their  excrements.  These 
facts  are  demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt. 

Spring   Dwindling. 

659.  When  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  successful 
wintering  of  bees  are  not  complied  with,  and  they  have  suf- 
fered from  diarrhoea  (784),  many  colonies  may  be  lost  by 
Spring  dwindling,  especially  if  the  Spring  is  cold  and  back- 
ward. Even  colonies,  which  appeared  to  have  gone  through 
the  Winter  strong  in  numbers,  may  slowly  lose  bee  after  bee 
till  the  queen  alone  remains  in  the  hive.  This  is  sometimes 
mistaken  for  desertion  (407),  as  will  be  seen  in  the  foUowmg 
paragraph,  which  we  quote  from  The  London  Quarterly  Re- 
view, and  in  which  the  author  attributes  to  lack  of  loyalty 
in  the  bees,  that  which  evidently  must  have  been  due  only  to 
Spring  dwindling: 


SPKiXG    DWINDLING.  3(39 

' '  Bees,  like  men,  have  their  different  dispositions,  so  that 
even  their  loyalty  will  sometimes  fail  them.  An  instance  not 
!lcng  ago  came  to  our  knowledge,  which  probably  few  bee- 
keepers will  credit.  It  is  that  of  a  hive  which,  having  early 
exhausted  its  store,  was  found,  on  being  examined  one  morning, 
to  be  utterly  deserted.  The  comb  was  empty,  and  the  only 
symptom  of  life  was  the  poor  queen  herself,  'unfriended, 
melancholy,  slow,'  crawling  over  the  honeyless  cells,  a  sad 
spectacle  of  the  fall  of  bee-greatness.  Marius  among  the  ruins 
of  Carthage — Napoleon  at  Fontainebleau — was  nothing  to  this. ' ' 

Several  such  instances,  caused  by  Spring  dwindling,  with 
subsequent  robbing  of  the  honey,  were  observed  by  us.  Colo- 
nies are  thus  destroyed  as  late  as  April  and  May. 

S60.  In  some  instances,  the  enlarged  abdcmen  of  the  bees 
will  show  that  they  are  suffering  from  constipation— (785) — 
or  inability  to  discharge  their  faeces,  even  though  they  may 
have  voided  their  abdomen  since  their  long  confinement.  Prob- 
ably their  intestines  are  in  an  unhealthj^  condition.  In  the 
worst  cases  of  Spring  dwindling,  sometimes,  even  the  queens 
show  signs  of  failing,  and  eventually  disappear.  This  may 
occur  also  with  colonies  that  were  wintei"ed  in  the  cellar,  if 
they  Jiave  suffered  from  diarrhoea,  or  have  been  removed  too 
early. 

There  is  another  sort  of  Spring  dwindling  caused  by  the 
loss  of  working  bees  m  cold  Sprmgs,  while  in  search  of  water 
(271),  or  pollen  (263),  for  the  brood. 

661.  To  avoid  losses  or  to  check  them  as  far  as  possible, 
after  a  hard  Winter,  it  is  indispensable  that  the  following  be 
observed : 

'1st.  The  hives  should  be  located  in  a  warm,  sunny,  well- 
sheltered  place.  All  Apiaries  that  are  placed  in  exposed 
windy  situations,  or  facing  North,  suffer  most  from  Spring 
dwindling. 

2d.  The  number  of  combs  in  the  hive  should  be  reduced 
in  early  Spring,  with  the  division-board  or  contractor,  to  suit 
the  size  of  the  cluster   (349).     This  helps  the  bees  to  keep 


370  SPRING    DWlNDLlXfi. 

warm   and   raise  brood.      The  space  must  again   be  enlarged 
gradually,  when  the  colony  begins  to  recruit. 

We  consider  this  contraction  of  the  hive  as  altogether  in- 
dispensable when  using  large  hives.  Let  us  suppose  that,  in 
early  Spring,  we  have  a  colony  whose  population  is  so  much 
reduced  that  it  cannot  warm^  to  the  degree  needed  for  breed- 
ing, more  than  500  cubic  inches  of  space.  If  we  leave  the 
brood-chamber  without  contraction,  as  its  surface,  in  a  10- 
frame  Langstroth  hive,  will  be  about  270  square  inches,  the 
cubic  space  heated  will  have  about  two  inches  in  thickness  at 
the  top,  since  heat  always  rises.  If,  on  the  contrary^,  we  have 
reduced  the  number  of  frames  to  three,  the  depth  of  the  space 
warmed  at  the  top  will  amount  to  more  than  three  times  as 
much,  or  to  more  than  six  inches.  Thus,  the  bees  will  not 
only  be  more  healthy,  but  the  laying  of  the  queen,  not  being 
delayed  by  the  cold,  and  the  number  of  the  bees  increasing 
faster,  they  will  be  able  to  repay  the  bee-keeper  for  the  care 
bestowed,  instead  of  dwindling,  or  remaining  worthless  for 
the  Spring  crop. 

3d.  The  heat  should  be  concentrated  in  the  brood  apart- 
ment, by  all  meanSj  and  not  allowed  to  escape  above.  The 
entrance  also  must  remain  reduced. 

In  instances  of  this  kind,  the  cloister  (638)  or  some  other 
method  of  confining  the  bees  without  light,  might  prove  use- 
ful, provided  the  colonies  were  supplied  with  pollen  and  water 
so  that  they  might  breed  without  having  to  seek  for  the  neces- 
saries. 

662.  AjDiarists  in  general,  do  not  attach  enough  import- 
ance to  the  necessity  of  furnishing  water  (SYl)  to  bees  in 
cold  Springs,  in  order  that  they  may  stay  at  home  in  quiet. 
Although  Berlepsch  laid  too  much  stress  on  the  question  of 
water,  the  lack  of  which  he  even  said  was  the  cause  of  dys- 
entery, yet  he  was  right  in  calling  our  attention  to  the  need 
of  it  for  breeding: 

''The  Creator  has  given  the  bee  an  instinct  to  store  up  honey 
and  pollen,  which  are  not  always  to  be  procured,  but  not  water. 


SPRING    DWINDLING.  371 

which  is  always  accessible  in  her  native  regions.  In  Northern 
latitudes,  when  confined  to  the  hive,  often  for  months  together, 
they  can  obtain  the  water  they  need  only  from  the  watery  par- 
ticles contained  in  the  honey,  the  perspiration  which  condenses 
on  the  colder  parts  of  the  hive,  or  the  humidity  of  the  air  which 
enters  their  hives. 

'  *  In  March  and  April,  the  rapidly-increasing  amount  of  brood 
causes  an  increased  demand  for  water;  and  when  the  thermom- 
eter is  as  low  as  45  degrees,  bees  may  be  seen  carrying  it  in  at 
noon,  even  on  windy  days,  although  many  are  sure  to  perish 
from  cold. '  In  these  months,  in  1856,  during  a  protracted  period 
of  unfavorable  weather  we  gave  all  our  bees  water,  and  they 
remained  at  home  in  quiet,  whilst  those  of  other  apiaries  were 
flying  briskly  in  search  of  water.  At  the  beginning  of  May, 
our  hives  were  crowded  with  bees;  whilst  the  colonies  of  our 
neighbors  were  mostly  weak. 

"The  consumption  of  water  in  March  and  April,  in  a  popu- 
lous colony,  is  very  great,  and  in  1856,  one  hundred  colonies 
required  eleven  Berlin  quarts  per  week,  to  keep  on  breeding 
uninterruptedly.  In  Springs  where  the  bees  can  fly  safely 
almost  every  day,  the  want  of  water  will  not  be  felt. 

''The  loss  of  bees  by  water-dearth,  is  the  result  of  climate, 
and  no  form  of  hive,  or  mode  of  wintering,  can  furnish  an  ab- 
solutely efficient  security  against  it." — (Translated  from  the 
German,  by  S.  Wagner.) 

That  bees  cannot  raise  much  brood  without  water,  unless 
they  have  fresh-gathered  honey,  has  been  known  from  the  times 
of  Aristotle.  Buera  of  Athens  (Cotton,  p.  104),  aged  80 
years,  said  in  1797: 

"Bees  daily  supply  the  worms  with  water;  should  the  state 
of  the  weather  be  such  as  to  prevent  the  bees  from  fetching 
water  for  a  few  days,  the  worms  would  perish.  These  dead  bees 
are  removed  out  of  the  hive  by  the  working-bees  if  they  are 
healthy  and  strong;  otherwise,  the  stock  perishes  from  their 
putrid  exhalations." 

In  any  movable-frame  hives,  water"  can  be  given  to  the 
bees  by  pouring  it  into  the  empty  cells  of  a  comb, 


372  SPRINti   DWINDLING. 

A  better  metliod  still  is  to  supply  the  bees  from  time  to 
time  with  small  quantities  of  thin  sugar  syrup  or  watery 
honey  (606)  warmed  up  for  thi.s  purpose.  This  takes  the 
place  of  fresh  nectar  and  saves  the  bees  many  a  trijD  for  cold 
water  to  the  neighboring  pond.  But  thin,  watei-y  syrup 
should  never  be  fed  at  the  opening  of  cold  weather,  in  the 
Fall. 

Deserting. 

663.  ^Xe  have  shown  (407)  that  bees  sometimes  desert 
their  hives,  when  the  colony  is  too  weak,  or  short  of  stores, 
or  suffering  from  dampness,  mouldy  combs,  etc.,  etc.  This 
desertion,  which  differs  from  natural  swarming  m  this,  that  it 
may  take  place  in  any  season,  and  that  the  deserting  bees  do 
not  raise  an^'  (|ueen-cel]s  previously,  is  more  frequent  in  cold 
backward  Springs  than  at  any  other  time. 

At  different  times  we  have  seen  bees  deserting  their  hives 
and  forsaking  their  brood  for  lack  of  pollen  (^4).  A 
comb  containing  pollen  having  been  put  in  their  hive  and  the 
bees  returned  they  remained  happy.  But  the  worst  of  these 
desertions  is  when  the  bees  have  suffered  while  wintered  in- 
doors (651.)  These  colonies  abandon  their  hives  very  soon 
after  being  replaced  on  their  Summer  stands.  When  such 
desertion  is  feared,  it  -is  better  not  to  put  out  more  than 
one  dozen  colonies  at  one  time,  and  to  prepare  a  fcAv  dry 
combs,  in  clean  hives,  to  hive  the  swarm  as  soon  as  possible; 
for,  too  often  some  other  colonies  following  the  example,  mix 
with  the  first,  the  queens  are  balled  (538),  causing  great 
annoyance  and  loss  to  the  bee-keeper.  Such  swarms  should  be 
hived  on  clean  diy  comb,  and  furnished  with  honey  and 
pollen,  '.'he  capacity  of  the  hive  in  which  they  are  put  should 
be  reduced  to  suit  the  size  of  the  swarm,  and  increased  very 
cautiously,  from  time  to  time,  when  the  bees  seem  to  be 
crowded;  for  warmth  is  indispensable  to  bees  in  Spring.  The 
condition  of  such  colonies  must  be  regularly  ascertained  and 
their  wants  supplied. 


DESERTING.  ut6 

"We  would  refer  tliose  who  think  that  ^'it  is  too  much 
trouble''  to  examine  their  hives  in  the  Spring,  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  ancient  bee-keepers,  as  set  forth  by  Columella : 
"The  hives  should  be  opened  in  the  Spring,  that  all  the  filth 
which  was  gathered  in  them  during  the  Whiter  may  be  re- 
moved. Spiders,  which  spoil  their  combs,  and  the  worms 
from  which  the  moths  proceed,  must  be  killed.  When  the  hive 
has  been  thus  cleaned,  the  bees  will  apply  themselves  to  work 


Fig.   141. 

IX    THE    SNOW. 

Apiary   oi    L.    W.    Elmore,    of   Fairfield,    Iowa. 


with  the  greater  diligence  and  resolution.''  The  sooner  those 
abandon  bee-keepin<r,  who  consider  the  proper  care  of  their 
bees  as  "too  much  trouble,"  the  better  for  themselves  and  their 
unfortmiate  bees. 

In  making  this  thorough  cleansing,  the  Apiarist  will  learn 
which  colonies  require  aid.  and  which  can  lend  a  helping  hand 
to  others;  and  any  hive  needing  repairs,  may  be  put  in  order 
before  being  used  again.  Such  hives,  if  occasionally  re- 
painted, will  last  for  generations,  and  prove  cheaper,  in  the 
long  run,  than  any  other  kind. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

KOBBIXCi,    AND    How    PREVENTED. 

^^An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  ton  of  care." 

664.  Bees  are  su  prone  to  rob  each  other,  in  time  of 
scarcity,  that,  unless  great  precautions  are  used,  the  Apiarist 
will  often  lose  some  of  his  most  promising  colonies.  Idleness 
is,  with  them,  as  with  men,  a  fruitful  mother  of  mischief. 
They  are,  however,  far  more  excusable  than  the  lazy  rogues 
of  the  human  family;  for  they  seldom  attempt  to  live  on 
stolen  sweets,  when  they  can  procure  a  sufficiency  by  honest 
industry. 

As  soon  as  they  can  leave  their  hives  in  the  Spring,  they 
may  begin  to  assail  the  Aveaker  colonies.  In  this  matter,  the 
morals  of  our  little  friends  seem  to  be  sadly  at  fault;  for, 
those  colonies  which  have  the  largest  surplus  are— like  some 
rich  oppressors— the  most  anxious  to  prey  upon  the  meagre 
possessions  of  others. 

If  the  marauders,  who  are  prowling  about  in  search  of 
plunder,  attack  a  strong  and  healthy  colony,  they  are  usually 
glad  to  escape  with  their  lives  from  its  resolute  defenders. 
The  bee-keeper,  therefore,  who  neglects  to  watch  his  needy 
colonies,  and  to  assist  such  as  are  weak  or  queenless,  must 
count  upon  suffering-  heavj"  losses  from  robber-bees. 

665.  It  is  sometimes  difficult,  for  the  novice,  to  discrim- 
inate between  the  honest  inhabitants  of  a  hive,  and  the  rob- 
bers which  often  mingle  with  them.  There  is,  however,  an 
air  of  roguery  about  a  thieving  bee  which,  to  the  expert,  is 
as  characteristic  as  are  the  motions  of  a  pickpocket  to  a  skill- 
ful policeman.  Its  sneaking  look,  and  nervous,  guilty  agita- 
tion, once  seen,  can  never  be  mistaken.     It  docs  not,  like  the 

374 


ROBBIXG.  375 

laborer  carrying  iiuiiie  the  fruits  of  lioiiest  toil,  alight  boldly 
upon  the  entrance-board,  or  face  the  guards,  knowing  well 
that,  if  caught  by  these  trusty  guardians,  its  life  would  hardly 
be  worth  insuring.  If  it  can  glide  by  without  touching  any 
of  the  sentinels,  those  within  — taking  it  for  granted  that  all  is 
right— may  permit  it  to  help  itself. 

Bees  which  lose  their  way,  and  alight  upon  a  strange  hive, 
can  readily  be  distinguished  from  these  thieving  scamps.  The 
rogue,  when  caught,  strives  to  pull  away  from  his  executioners, 
while  the  bewildered  unfortunate  shrinks  into  the  smallest 
compass,  submitting  to  any  fate  his  captors  may  award. 

These  dishonest  bees  a]-e  the  ''Jerry  Sneaks]'  of  their  pro- 
fession. Constantly  creeping  through  small  holes,  and  daub- 
ing themselves  with  honey,  their  plumes  assume  a  smooth 
and  almost  black  appearance,  just  as  the  hat  and  garments 
of  a  thievish  loafer,  acquire  a  "seedy*'  aspect. 

Dzierzon   thinks   that   these   black   bees,   which   Huber   has 
.  described  as  so  bitterly  persecuted  by  the  rest,  are  nothing 
more  than  thieves.     Aristotle  speaks  of  "a  black  bee  which  is 
called  a  thief/' 

666.  The  writer  has  known  the  value  of  an  apiaiy  to 
be  so  seriously  impaired  by  the  bees  beginning  early  in  the 
season  to  rob  each  other,  that  the  owner  was  often  tempted 
to  wish  that  he  had  never  seen  a  bee.  Yet,  we  should  hardly 
blame  them  for  their  robbing  propensities.  With  them,  as 
with  men,  much  depends  on  the  education  which  they  are 
allowed  to  receive.  Their  nature  teaches  them  to  hunt  for 
sweets  industriously,  wherever  they  can  find  them,  and  any 
sweet,  which  they  can  reach,  by  the  most  strenuous  efforts,  is 
considered  by  them,  at  once,  as  their  private  property.  Were 
it  not  for  this  disposition  of  the  bee,  to  hunt  for  sweets 
everywhere,  and  take  them  home,  the  honey  of  those  colonies 
that  dwell  in  the  woods,  and  frequently  perish  during  the 
Winter,  would  be  wasted.  The  propensity  to  rob  is  acquired 
only  during  a  dearth  of  honey  in  the  flowers;  for  bees  have 
a  much  greater  relish   for  fresh  honey,  as  produced  in   the 


37(5  KUliBlXG.    AND    HOW    PHE\KNTKl). 

l)lossoiiis,  than  for  any  ulher  sweet  on  earth.  In  a  day  oL 
abundant  harvest,  honey  may  be  left  exposed  where  bees  can 
reacli  it,  without  being  touched,  or  even  approached,  by  a 
single  bee,  for  hours;  while,  if  placed  in  the  veiy  same  spot 
during  a  dearth  of  honey,  it  will  be  covered  with  bees  in  very- 
few  minutes. 

If  the  bee-keeper  would  not  have  his  bees  so  demoralized 
that  their  value  will  be  seriously  diminished,  he  will  be  c.i- 
ceedingly  careful  in  time  of  scarcity  to  prevent  them  from 
robbing  each  other.  If  the  bees  of  a  strong  colony  once  get 
a  taste  of  forbidden  sweets,  they  will  seldom  stop  until  they 
have  tested  the  strength  of  every  hive.  Even  if  all  the  colonies 
are  able  to  defend  themselves,  many  bees  will  be  lost  in  these 
encounters,  and  much  time  wasted. 

667.  An  experienced  bee-keeper  readily  perceives  when 
any  robbing  is  going  on  in  his  apiar>\  Bees  are  flying  va- 
grantly  about,  hunting  in  nooks  and  corners,  and  at  all  the 
hive-crevices.  Extensive  robbing  causes  a  general  uproar,  and 
the  bees  of  all  the  hives  are  much  more  disposed  to  sting. 
The  robbers  sally  out  with  the  first  peep  of  light,  and  often 
continue  there  depredations  until  it  is  so  late  that  they  cannot 
find  the  entrance  to  their  hive.  Some  even  pass  the  night  in 
Ihe  plundered  colony. 

The  cloud  of  robbers  arriving  and  departing  need  never  be 
mistaken  for  honest  laborers  (173-174)  candying,  with  un- 
wieldy flight,  their  heavy  burdens  to  the  hive.  These  bold 
plundeiers,  as  they  enter  a  hive,  are  almost  as^hungiy-looking 
as  Pharaoh's  lean  kine,  while,  on  coming  out,  they  show  by 
their  burly  looks  that,  like  aldermen  who  have  dined  at  the 
expense  of  the  city,  they  are  stuffed  to  their  utmost  capacity. 

668.  When  robbing-bees  have  fairly  overcome  a  colony, 
the  attempt  to  stop  them— by  shutting  up  the  hive,  or  by 
moving  it  to  a  new  stand— if  improperly  conducted,  is  often 
far  more  disastrous  than  allowing  them  to  finish  their  work. 
The  air  will  be  quickly  filled  with  greedy  bees,  who,  unable 
to  bear  their  disappointment,  will  assail,  with  almost  frantic 


now    TO   STOP  KOBUiNG.  377 

desperation,  some  uf  the  adjoining  hives.  In  this  way,  the 
strongest  colonies  are  sometimes  overpowered,  or  thousands 
of  bees  slain  in  the  desperate  contest. 

How  TO  Stop  Robbing. 

When  an  Apiarist  perceives  that  a  colony  is  being  robbed, 
he  should  contract  the  entrance,  and,  if  the  assailants  persist 
in  forcing  their  way  in,  he  must  close  it  entirely.  In  a  few 
mmutes  the  hive  will  be  black  with  the  greedy  cormorants, 
who  will  not  abandon  it  till  they  have  attempted  to  squeeze 
themselves  through  the  smallest  openings.  Before  they  assail 
a  neighboring  colony,  they  should  be  thoroughly  sprinkled 
with  cold  w^ater,  which  will  somewhat  cool  their  ardor. 

Unless  the  bees,  that  Avere  shut  up,  can  have  an  abundance 
of  air,  they  should  be  carried  to  a  cool,  dark  place,  after  the 
Apiarist  has  allowed  the  robbers  to  escape  out  of  it.  Early 
the  next  morning  they  nnist  be  examined,  and,  if  necessarj', 
united  to  another  hive. 

' '  In  Germany,  when  colonies  in  common  hives  are  being 
robbed,  they  are  often  removed  to  a  distant  location,  or  put 
in  a  da;-k  cellar.  A  hive,  similar  in  appearance,  is  placed  on 
their  stand,  and  leaves  of  wormwood  and  the  expressed  juice 
of  the  plant  are  put  on  the  bottom-board.  Bees  have  such  an 
antipathy  to  the  odor  of  this  plant,  that  the  robbers  speedily 
forsake  the  place,  and  the  assailed  colony  may  then  be  brought 
back. 

''The  Eev.  Mr.  Klrinc  says,  that  robbers  may  be  repelled  by 
imparting  to  the  hive  some  intensely  powerful  and  unaccus- 
tomed odor.  He  effects  this  the  most  readily  by  placing  in  it, 
in  the  evening,  a  small  portion  of  musk,  and  on  the  following 
morning  the  bees,  if  they  have  a  healthy  queen,  will  boldly 
meet  their  assailants.  These  are  nonplussed  by  the  unwonted 
odor,  and,  if  any  of  them  enter  the  hive  and  carry  off  some  of 
the  coveted  booty,  on  their  return  home,  having  a  strange 
smell,  they  will  be  killed  by  their  own  household.  The  rob- 
bing is  thus  soon  brought  to  a  close." — S.  Wagner. 


378  RUBBING^    AND    HOW     I'KEVKNTED. 

It  will  ot'teii  be  I'uund  thai  a  hive  whicli  is;  overpowered 
by  robbers  has  no  queen,  or  one  that  is  diseased. 

669.  One  of  the  best  methods  which  we  have  found  to 
stop  the  robbing  of  one  hive  by  another,  when  the  robbed 
colony  is  worth  saving,  is  to  exchange  them;  /.  e.,  to  place 
the  robbed  colony  on  the  stand  of  the  robbing  colony,  and 
vice  versa.  The  robbing  colony  can  usually  be  found  by 
sprinkling  the  returning  bees  with  flour,  as  they  come  out  of 
the  robbed  hive,  and  watching  the  direction  which  they  take. 
It  can  also  often  be  detected  by  the  activity  of  its  bees,  if 
the  neighboring  hives  are  idle,  especially  after  sunset. 

This  method,  however,  cannot  be  practiced  when  the  robbing 
and  the  robbed  colonies  do  not  belong  to  the  same  person;  or 
Avhen  the  robbing  is  carried  on  by  many  hives  at  one  time, 
although,  in  the  latter  case,  the  exchange  of  stands  between 
the  strongest  of  the  robbing  hives  and  the  weak  robbed 
colony,  in  the  evening,  and  the  reducing  of  the  entrances  of 
both,  usually  has  a  good  result.  The  old  robber  bees,  be- 
wildered by  this  exchange,  make  their  home  in  the  robbed 
colony,  since  they  find  it  on  the  stand  where  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  bring  their  honey;  and  they  defend  it  w4th  as  much 
energy  as  they  used  in  attacking  it  before.  See  Quinby's 
"Mysteries  of  Bee-Keeping,"  N.  Y.,  1866. 

670.  We  read  in  the  British  Bee- Journal  that  a  carbol- 
ized  sheet  (38-1)  can  be  used  to  stop  robbing,  if  spread  in 
front  of  the  robbed  hive.  This  same  sheet,  spread  on  the 
hive  while  extracting  (749),  and  on  the  surplus  box  where 
the  combs  are  placed  (768),  displeases  the  robbers  and  pro- 
tects the  comb,  but  strong  smelling  drugs  must  be  used  spar- 
ingly over  a  super  full  of  honey,  for  fear  of  damaging  the 
flavor  of  the  honey. 

671.  There  is  a  kind  of  pillage  w^hich  is  carried  on  so 
secretly  as  often  to  escape  all  notice.  The  bees  engaged  in  it 
do  not  enter  in  large  numbers,  no  fightmg  is  visible,  and  the 
labors  of  the  hive  appear  to  be  progressing  wnth  their  usual 
quietness.     All  the  while,  however,  strange  bees  are  carrying 


PREVENTION.  379 

off  the  honey  as  fast  as  it  is  gathered.  After  watching  such 
a  colony  for  some  days,  it  occurred  to  us  one  evening,  as  it 
had  an  unhatched  queen,  to  give  it  a  fertile  one.  On  the  next 
morning,  rising  before  the  rogues  were  up,  we  had  the  pleas- 
ure of  seeing  them  meet  with  such  a  warm  reception,  tha*^, 
they  were  glad  to  make  a  speedy  retreat. 

This  is  another  proof  that  discouragement  caused  by  queen- 
lessness  often  leads  to  the  loss  of  a  colony. 

Prevention. 

6'72.  If  the  Apiarist  luould  guard  his  bees  against  dis- 
honest courses,  he  must  be  exceedingly  careful,  in  his  various 
operations,  not  to  leave  any  combs  or  any  honey  where  bees 
can  find  them,  for,  after  once  getting  a  taste  of  stolen  honey, 
they  will  hover  around  him  as  soon  as  they  see  him  operating 
on  a  hive,  all  ready  to  pounce  upon  it  and  snatch  what  they 
can  of  its  exposed  treasures. 

In  times  of  scarcity,  food  should  never  be  given  to  the  bees 
in  the  day  time,  but  only  in  the  evening,  always  inside  of  the 
hive  and  above  the  combs.  The  feeding  of  bees  (605)  in  the 
day  time  causes  robbmg  in  two  ways.  It  excites  the  bees 
which  are  fed,  and  induces  them  to  go  out  to  hunt  for  more, 
and  the  smell  of  the  food  given  attracts  the  bees  of  the  other 
hives.  Hence  follows  fighting  and  trouble.  But,  above  all 
thmgs,  the  Apiarist  must  try  to  keep  his  colonies  strong. 
When  there  is  a  scarcity  of  blossoms,  or  of  nectar  in  the 
flowers,  the  entrance  of  the  hive  should  be  lessened,  to 
suit  the  needs  of  the  colony,  by  moving  the  entrance  blocks 
(339).  If  the  hive  contains  more  combs  than  the  bees  can 
well  defend,  the  number  of  the  combs  should  be  reduced  by 
the  use  of  the  division  board   (349). 

673.  It  is  especially  with  weak  colonies  that  care  should 
be  taken,  in  Spring  or  Fall.  The  strong  hives  being  better 
able  to  keep  warm,  their  bees  fly  out  earlier  in  the  day  and 
will  readily  discover  the  weaker  ones,  which,  unless  their  honey 
is  protected,  they  will  soon  overpower. 


380  ROBBING,,    AND    HOW    PREVENTED. 

When  the  above  inslructiuiis  are  carried  out,  if  thieves  try 
to  slip  into  a  feeble  colony  they  are  almost  sure  to  be  over- 
hauled and  put  to  death;  and  if  robbers  are  bold  enough  to 
attempt  to  force  an  entrance,  as  the  bottom-board  slants  for- 
ward (3^6)  it  gives  the  occupants  of  the  hive  a  decided  ad- 
vantage. Should  any  succeed  in  entering,  they  will  find 
hundreds  standing  in  battle-array,  and  fare  as  badly  as  a  for- 
lorn hojje  that  has  stormed  the  walls  of  a  beleaguered  fortress, 
only  to  perish  among  thousands  of  enraged  enemies. 

Cracks  and  openings  in  disjointed  hives,  should  be  securely 
closed  with  wet  clay,  until  the  bees  can  be  transferred  into 
better  abodes. 

When  the  hives  are  opened,  the  work  must  be  performed 
speedily  and  carefully;  and,  if  any  great  number  of  robbers 
show  themselves  during  the  operation,  it  is  well,  after  closing 
the  hive,  and  reducing  the  entrance,  to  place  a  bunch  of  grass 
(fine  grass  or  fine  weeds  preferred)  over  it,  for  an  hour,  or 
till  the  temporary  excitement  has  subsided.  The  guardian  bees 
station  themselves  in  this  grass  and  chase  out  robbers  much 
more  easily  than  they  could  otherwise.  The  robbers  them- 
selves recognize  that  their  chances  of  "dodging  in"  are  slim, 
and  give  up  the  midertaking.  We  have  never  had  any  trouble 
with  robbers  after  closing  a  hive  in  this  way. 

When  the  robbed  colonj-  is  weak,  the  robbing  may  be  abated 
by  preventing  any  bees  from  entering  it  till  evening,  when 
other  colonies  have  stopped  flymg;  allowing,  at  the  same  time, 
any  bee  that  wishes  to  depart  from  it,  and  closing  the  en- 
trance till  late  in  the  morning.  By  this  course  most  of  the 
robbers  will  be  tired  of  their  useless  attempts,  while  the  re- 
maining workers  of  the  robbed  hive  will  be  ready  to  repel  the 
attacks. 

When  none  of  these  methods  succeed,  a  small  comb  of 
hatching  Italian  bees  (551)  may  be  given,  with  the  necessary 
precautions  (480),  to  the  weak  colony,  and  the  hive  placed 
in  the  cellar  for  a  few  days.  The  hatched  Italians  will  receive 
the  intruders  warmly  when  the  hive  is  broup;ht  back. 


I'KLVENTION.  381 

The  Italian  bees  defend  their  hives  much  better  than  the 
black  (549)  against  the  intrusion  of  robbers,  and  the  Cypri- 
ans and  Syrians   (559)   surpass  even  the  Italians. 

When  a  comb  of  honey  breaks  down  m  a  hive  from  any 
cause,  it  should  be  removed  promptly,  and  the  bottom-bdaivl 
should  be  exchanged  for  a  clean  one  at  once.  If  any  drops  of 
honey  fall  about  the  apiary,  it  is  best  to  cover  them  up  with 
earth  promptly.  In  sliort,  no  honey  sliould  be  left  exjDosed, 
where  bees  can  plunder  it. 

Of  late  years  some  Apiarists  have  practiced  outdoor  feedhig 
of  thin  watery  honey  on  a  large  scale,  to  prevent  robbing. 
Their  aim  is  to  produce  the  same  conditions  as  are  made  by 
a  crop  of  honey,  supply  all  the  bees  with  all  they  want,  for 
the  time.  The  robbers  are  thus  kept  busy  and  do  not  think 
about  bothering  the  weak  hives.  We  can  see  nothing  accep- 
table in  this  method  and  we  find  that  advanced  Apiarists  agree 
with  us.     Doctor  C.  C.  Miller,  on  this  subject,  says: 

' '  I  have  fed  barrels  of  sugar  syrup  in  the  open  air,  and  it  is 
possible  that  circumstances  may  arise  to  induce  me  to  do  it 
again,  but  I  doubt  it.  There  are  serious  objections  to  this  out- 
door feeding.  You  are  not  sure  what  portion  of  it  your  own 
bees  will  get,  if  other  bees  are  in  flying  distance.  Consider- 
able experience  has  proved  to  me  that  by  this  method,  the 
strong  colonies  get  the  lion's  share,  and  the  weak  colonies  very 
little." — (Forty  Years  Among  the  Bees.) 

We  are  glad  to  see  that  so  high  an  authority  agrees  with  us 
on  this  matter,  for  we  have  been  considered  as  little  short  of 
old-foey,  because  we  did  not  countenance  outdoor  feeding. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

C'OMli    FOLNDATIOX. 

674:.  The  invention  and  introduction  of  comb  foundation, 
With  the  use  of  movable  frames,  marked  an  important  step 
in  the  progress  of  practical  bee-culture.  The  main  drawback 
to  the  perfect  success  of  movable-frame  hives  was  the  difficulty 
of  alwaj's  obtaining  straight  combs  in  the  frames  (318). 
Although  the  bevelled  top  bar  (319)  often  secured  this  ob- 
ject, yet,  in  many  instances,  the  bees  deviated  from  this  gTiide 
and  fastened  their  combs  from  one  frame  to  another;  and  if 
the  matter  was  not  promptly  attended  to,  the  combs  of  the 
hive  became  as  immovable  as  those  of  box  hives.  One  frame 
slightlj'  out  of  place  was  a  sufficient  incentive  for  the  bees 
to  fasten  two  frames  together.  In  the  management  of  four 
large  apiaries,  previous  to  the  introduction  of  comb  founda- 
tion, we  found  that,  in  spite  of  our  efforts,  a  certain  number 
of  colonies  would  so  build  their  combs,  that  only  a  part  of  the 
frames  were  movable  without  the  use  of  a  knife.  Even  the 
combs  that  were  built  in  the  right  place  were  made  somewhat 
weaving,  or  bulged  in  spots,  and  were  thus  rendered  mi  fit  for 
such  interchanges  as  are  daily  required  in  ordiuaiy^  manipula- 
tions. 

675.     Another  drawback   to   success   was   the  building  of 


drone-comb  (225).  We  have  had  colonies  m  which  nearly 
one-foui'th  of  the  combs  were  drcne-comb.  In  such  hives  the 
number  of  drones  that  might  be  raised  would  be  sufficient  to 
consume  the  surplus  honey.  To  be  sure,  with  movable-frame 
hives,  such  combs  can  be  removed,  but  the  difficulty  consists 
in  procuring  straight  and  neat. worker-combs  to  replace  them; 
for  if  we  simply  remove  the  drone-combs,  the  bees  often  re- 
place them  with  the  same  kind  (233). 

3S2 


ADVANTAGES. 


;s3 


676.  Good  straight  worker-comb,  not  too  old,  is  the  most 
valuable  capital  of  the  Apiarist  (442).  For  years,  before 
the  introduction  of  comb-foundation,  we  had  been  in  the  habit 
of  buying*  all  the  worker-comb  from  dead  colonies  that  we 
could  findj  but  we  never  had  enough. 


Fig.  142. 

THE     OraGlNAL     "ROOT"     MILL. 

(From   Root's  "A  B  C  of  Bee-Culture.") 


The  consideration  of  the  ab9ve  important  points,  a'.d  of 
the  great  cost  of  comb  to  the  bees  (223),  had  Ion?  ago 
drawn  the  attention  of  German  Apiarists  to  the  possibility 
of  manufacturing  the  base^  or  foundation,  of  the  comb. 


384 


CUMB     FOUXDATIOX. 


GT"?.  In  1.S57,  Johannes  Mehring  invented  a  press  to  make 
wax  wafers,  on  which  the  inidiments  of  the  cells  were  prmted. 
Those  only,  who  experienced  the  obstacles  w^hich  this  industry- 
presents,  can  form  an  idea  of  the  energy  and  perseverance 
that  were  required  to  succeed  as  he  did. 

The  foundation  made  by  him  then,  was  far  from  being  equal 
to  w^hat  is  now  made.  The  projections  of  the  cell-walls  were 
too  rudnnentary,  sometimes  not  printed,  and  the  bees  often 
built  drone-cells  instead  of  worker-cells;  but  these  imperfect 
efforts  were  the  beginning  of  an  industiy  which  has  proved 
of  immense  advantage  to  bee-keepers,  and  has  spread  like 
wild-fire  wherever  bees  are  kept. 


Fig.    143. 

THE    LATEST    FOUNDATION    MILL. 

(A   B    C   of   Bee-Culture.) 


678.  Another  Apiarist,  Peter  Jacob,  of  Switzerland,  im- 
proved on  the  Mehring  press,  and  in  18G5,  some  of  hi§  foun- 
dation was  imported  to  America,  by  Mr,  H.  Steele,  of  Jersey 
City  {Am.  Bee-Journal,  Vol.  2,  page  221),  and  tried  by  Mr. 
J.  L.  Hubbard,  who  reported  favorably  upon  it.  In  1861, 
Mr.  Wagner  had  secured  a  patent  in  the  United  States,  for 
the  manufacture  of  artificial  honey  comb -foundation  by  what- 
ever process  made.  His  patent  was  never  put  to  use,  and 
rather  retarded  the  progress  of  this  industry  in  America. 

679.  The  first  comb-foundation  made  in  America,  was 
manufactured    in    1875,   bv   a    German,   Mr.    F.   Weiss,   very 


Plate  22. 


JOHANNES  MEHRING, 

Inventor  of  Comb-Foundation. 
This    Apiarist    is    mentioned    pages    157    and    384. 


FOUNDATIOX    MILLS.  385 

probably  on  an  imported  machine.  Mr.  A.  I.  Root,  to  whom 
the  credit  is  due  of  popularizing  the  invention  the  world  over, 
manufactured  a  large  roller-mill,  in  Februarys,  1876,  with  the 
help  of  a  skilled  mechanic,  A.  Washburae.  He  sold  hundreds 
of  these  mills  afterwards. 

680.  Li  the  practical  use  of  comb-foundation,  the  most 
sanguine  expectations  were  realized: 

1.  Every  comb  that  is  built  on  foundation  is  as  straight 
as  a  board,  and  can  be  moved  from  one  place  to  another, 
in  any  hive,  without  trouble. 

2.  The  combs  built  on  worker-foundation  are  exclusively 
worker-combs,  with  the  exception  of  occasional  patches,  when 
the  foundation  sags  slightly,  owing  to  being  overloaded  by 
the  bees  before  the  cells  are  fully  built  out. 

3.  All  the  wax  produced  by  the  bees,  and  gathered  by 
the  Apiarist  from  scraps,  old  combs,  or  cappings,  is  returned 
to  the  bees  in  this  shape,  instead  of  being  sold  at  the  com- 
mercial value  of  beeswax,  which  is  several  times  less  than 
its  actual  cost  (223).  The  cost  of  foundation  for  brood- 
combs  is  not  very  great,  especialty  if  we  consider  that  this 
capital  is  not  consumed,  but  only  employed ;  as  the  wax  con- 
tained in  the  combs  represents  at  least  one-half  of  the 
primaiy  value  of  the  foundation,  and  can  be  rendered  again, 
after  years  of  use^  none  the  worse  for  wear.  It  has  been 
asserted  that  beeswax  decays  with  time  when  exposed  to  damp- 
ness.   "We  have  never  seen  this  and  believe  it  to  be  an  error. 

681.  Comb  foundation  has  been  made  largely,  esiDCcially 
in  Europe,  on  plaster  casts.  There  is  also  a  press,  the 
Rietsche,  which  makes  cast  sheets  of  wax  to  which  it  gives 
the  rudiments  of  cells.  These  sheets  are  made  very  much 
like  waffles  and  for  that  reasoii  the  sheets  of  comb  foundation 
are  called  in  the  French  language  "gaufres  de  eife.'^  Tliey 
have  the  advantage  of  being  easily  made  by  almost  any  per- 
son, but  are  veiy  rudimentaiy  and  very  brittle.  Similar 
sheets  were  made  in  this  country  formerly  by  the  Given 
press  but  they  have  gone  into  disuse,  as  our  bee-keepers  are 


386 


COMB    FOUXDATIOX. 


not  satisfied  with  imperfect  work.  The  only  reason  we  can 
ascribe  to  the  Rietsche  press  bemg  popular  in  Europe  is  that 
the  bee-keepers  find  it  difficult  to  purchase  foundation  made 
of  pure  beeswax  there.  So  they  prefer  to  make  an  imperfect 
article  out  of  their  own  product,  rather  than  buy  an  imitation 
which  breaks  down  in  the  hive  and  which  the  bees  often  re- 
ject  (686). 

6S2.     Comb  foundation  is  now  made  by  several  firms  in 
endless  sheets,  which  are  cut  to  proper  length  as  fast  as  they 


Fig.    144. 

SIX-INCH  VANDnJlVORT   MILL. 


are  printed.  The  Weed  process  produces  sheets  most  clear 
and  malleable  and  makes  a  superior  article  of  foundation. 
But  for  the  bee-keeper  who  wishes  to  make  his  own  wax  into 
sheets,  the  dipping  process  may  still  be  used.  We  give  a  short 
description  of  it  (689). 

683.  The  wax  used  for  thin  surplus-foundation  i?  a 
selected  giade.  Wax  from  cappings  (772)  and  Southern 
wax  are  the  best  for  this  purpose,  owing  to  their  light  color. 


PUKE   BEESWAX.  3<S7 

In  every  ease,  whether  the  foundation  is  to  be  used  for  sur- 
plus, or  for  brood-combs,  the  wax  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  heating  it  to  a  high  temperature  and  allowing  it 
to  cool  slowly  in  flarmg  vessels,  from  which  the  cold  wax  can 
be  easily  removed.  Wax,  that  is  allowed  to  retain  impurities, 
has  less  consistency,  and  will  sag  more  readily.  The  method 
used  by  wax-bleachers  of  purifying  with  acids  should  not  be 
resorted  to,  as  the  bees  have  a  dislike  for  any  disagreeable 
smell  or  taste. 

684.  Nothing  hut  pure  wax  should  he  used  in  any  grade 
of  foundation.  Paratfine,  ceresine,  etc.,  have  been  tried  with 
disastrous  results.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  these  compounds 
melt  at  a  lower  degree  than  beeswax  and  hreak  down  in  the 
hive,  the  bees  readily  discover  the  imposition  and  shoAV  a  de- 
cided jD reference  for  pure  foundation. 

685.  The  most  common  adulteration,  of  crude  beesv/ax  is 
made  with  tallow.  LucEiFy^  this  is  easily  recognized  by  the 
soft,  dull  appearance  of  the  cakes.  The  smell  of  tallow  is  also 
noticeable  in  freshly  broken  fragments. 

686.  Paraffine  and  other  mmeral  waxes  are  detected  in 
beeswax,  by  the  following  methods : 

Specific  gravity.  Beeswax  is  a  little  heavier  than  some  of 
the  other  waxes.  By  putting  a  piece  of  beeswax  into  water 
and  pouring  in  alcohol  until  the  wax  goes  to  the  bottom,  one 
has  a  solution  which  will  test  lighter  materials.  As  comb 
foundation  has  been  laminated  and  is  uneven  in  surface  it 
is  well  to  chew  the  wax  and  the  foundation,  before  making 
comparative  tests.,  so  as  to  put  both  in  the  same  condition. 
Paraffine  will  readily  show  considerably  lighter  specific  weight, 
and  will  float. 

Melting  points.  Tie  a  piece  of  the  material  you  wish  to 
test  on  the  bulb  of  a  round  thermometer  and  hang  this  into 
a  vial  over  a  slow  fire.  Good  beeswax  melts  between  144" 
and  150°,  while  the  common  grades  of  paraffine  melt  betwetru 
120^  and  1-40°. 

/Saponification  Test.     Hot  liquid  lye  will  entirely  change  the 


388 


COMB    FOUNDATION. 


nature  of  beeswax,  making  it  into  a  soapy  substance,  while  it 
will  leave  paraffine  and  other  mineral  wax  unchanged. 

687.  The  machines  used  for  thin  foundation  are  not  the 
same  as  those  used  for  brood  foundation.  The  latter,  made 
on  a  light  wall  machine,  would  be  too  weak  to  stand  the  weight 
of  the  bees,  in  a  full-sized  brood  frame,  and  would  not  con- 
tain wax  enough  for  the  bees  to  build  their  comb;  for  it  is 
a  remarkable  fact  that  the  becb  ^'thin  out"  the  foundation 
to  a  certain  extent  and  make  it  considerably  deeper  out  of 


Fig.    145. 

THIN    BASE    rOUNDATION. 

(A  B  C  of  Bee-Culture.) 


the  same  material.  AVhen  it  has  been  made,  ivith  a  thin  base 
and  a  heavy  wall,  the  bees  draw  it  out  more  readily  into  comb. 
On  the  other  hand,  foundation  for  surplus  (731)  must 
be  made  as  light  as  the  finest  machine  can  make  it,  to  avoid 
what  is  called  the  "fish-bone/'  a  central  rib  found  in  the 
honey-comb  that  has  been  built  on  too  heavy  foundation. 
There  is  no  "fish-bone,"  if  the  proper  grade  has  been  used, 
and  even  an  expert  in  comb-honey  hesitates  in  deciding 
whether  the  base  is  natural  or  artificial. 


t>URE   BEKSVVAX. 


:i89 


688.  At  the  present  day,  nearly  eveiy  section  (721)  of 
comb-honey  that  is  sold,  has  been  built  on  such  foundation. 
The  daintiest  and  most  fastidious  ladies  can  have  no  objection 
to  it,  and  on  visiting  a  well-managed  foundation  shop,  they 
declare  that  the  tender  sheets  are  "nice  enough  to  eat." 

689.  To  prepare  the  wax  sheets,  use  soft  wood  boards 
%  of  an  inch  thick,  bathed  in  tepid  water.  They  are  wiped 
with  a  sponge,  and  dipped  in  melted  wax,  two  or  three  times. 
The  lower  part  of  the  board  is  then  dipped  in  cold  water, 
when  it  is  turned  bottom  side  up,  and  the  other  end  is  treated 
in  the  same  manner.     After  the  board  has  been  put  in  water 


Fig.    1-16. 
FOUNDATION     IN     SECTIONS. 


to  cool  for  a  little  while,  it  is  taken  out ;  its  edges  are  trimmed 
with  a  sharp  knife,  and  the  two  sheets  of  wax  are  peeled 
off.  If  the  sheets  are  intended  for  heaw  foundation,  twice 
as  many  dips  are  necessary.  The  wax  should  be  liquid  but 
not  hot.  If  it  is  too  hot,  the  sheets  will  crack.  To  secure 
rapid  work,  you  must  have  a  room  arranged  purposely  for 
the  dippers,  with  a  zinc  or  tin  floor  to  catch  the  drips  of 
water  and  wax, 

690.  The  sheet  wax,  after  a  few  days'  cooling  in  a  dn," 
cellar,  is  tempered,  in  the  moulding  tank  with  warm  water, 
and  run  through  the  rollers.  The  latter  are  lubricated  with 
starch,  or  soapsuds.  "Wlien  soapsuds  are  used,  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  the  sheets  be  pressed  so  tightly  in  the  rollers,  as 


390  COMB    FOUNDATTOK. 

to  come  out  dry.  This  also  makes  a  better  print.  The  foun- 
dation, as  fast  as  it  comes  from  the  rollers,  is  laid  upon  a 
hard  wood  block— a  dozen  sheets  or  more^  at  a  time.  A 
wooden  pattern  is  laid  over  them,  and  they  are  trimmed  to 
the  proper  size,  by  a  knife  made  for  the  purpose,  whose 
blade  has  been  wet  with  soapsuds.  The  projecting  edges  arc 
trimmed  off,  and  the  damaged  sheets  are  melted  over  for 
future  use. 

For  the  thin  grades  of  foundation,  the  narrower  the  sheets 
are,  the  thinner  the  foundation  can  be  made.  A  wide  sheet 
spreads  the  rollers  by  springing  the  shafts  to  a  certain  extent, 
and  is  lieavier. 

691.  The  manufacture  of  foundation,  which  at  first 
seemed  likely  to  be  undertaken  by  evei-y  Apiarist,  has  become 
an  industry-  of  itself,  owing  to  the  greater  skill  and  speed 
acquired  by  those  who  make  it  daily.  It  might  be  compared 
to  cigar  making.  Any  Apiarist  can  make  wax  mto  sheets  and 
run  it  through  rollers  and  any  farmer  can  raise  tobacco  and 
roll  its  leaves  into  cigars,  but,  to  the  uninitiated,  a  neat  sheet 
of  foundation  is  as  difficult  to  make  as  an  elegant  cigar.  Im- 
proved and  expensive  machineiy  is  used  in  most  factories  for 
quick  and  perfect  work. 

692.  Well-made  foundation  will  keep  for  years,  in  a  dry 
place.  It  should  never  be  handled  when  cold;  and  when  too 
much  softened  by  heat,  should  be  cooled  in  a  cellar,  a  few 
hours  before  it  is  handled. 

When  it  is  cold,  it  becomes  so  brittle,  after  a  few  days  of 
exposure,  that  the  least  handling  will  crack  it.  We  have 
seen  hundreds  of  pounds  which  had  been  handled  roughly  in 
cold  weather,  fall  to  pieces  when  taken  out  of  the  box.  The 
jarring  of  the  boxes  had  cracked  the  foundation  imperceptibly, 
so  that  the  sheets  appeared  perfect,  but  as  soon  as  they  were 
touched,  they  fell  into  numerous  pieces.  Too  much  heat  has 
a  contrai-y  effect.  It  makes  the  foundation  too  malleable. 
The  temperature  of  the  blood  is  the  proper  degree  at  which 
the  bees  can  best  manipulate  it  and  that  is  also  the  best  tem- 


TASTEXIXG    IT    IX    THE    FRAMES. 


301 


perature  to  handle  it  when  fastening  it  in  the  frames,  though 
some  degrees  lower  will  not  be  injurious. 

The    best    grade    of    foimdation     for    brood    or    extract- 


Fig    147 

THE    PARKER    FASTENER. 


ing  combs  is  that   which   measures  about  six  square   feet   to 
the  pound;   that   for   sections,   ten   to   twelve   feet.     On   this 


Fig.    148. 

THE     RAUCHFUSS. 

Section    folder    and    foundation    fastener. 

latter  grade,  the  comb   is  not   so   readily  built,  for  the  bees 
have  to  add  their  own  wax  to  it. 


392 


COMB     FOUNDATION. 


693.  The  foimdation  is  fastened  iu  the  sections  by  ditt'er- 
eiit  machines,  the  most  simple  of  which  is  the  Parker  Fastener, 
sold  by  all  dealers  in  bee-implements. 

In  his  "Management  of  Bees"  Mr.  Doolittle  describes  his 
method  as  follows: 

*  *  Turn  your  section  top  side  down,  hold  a  hot  iron  close  to 
the  box,  and  after  holding  the  starter  immediately  above  and 
touching  the  iron,  draw  the  iron  out  quickly  and  press  the 
starter  gently  on  to  the  wood,  when  it  is  a  fixture. 


Fig.   149. 

ILXMBATGH    ROLLEK. 


The  daintiest  implement  we  have  .<een  anywhere  for  fasten- 
ing foundation  in  sections,  Avhile  at  the  same  time  folding 
the  one  piece  section,  is  the  small  press  invented  by  Frank 
Rauchfuss,  the  energetic  manager  of  the  Colorado  Honey  Pro- 
ducers' Association,  at  Denver.  Thousands  of  sections  are 
prepared  daily,  by  practical  apiarists,  with  this  instrument. 
It  is  th?  most  complete  thing  of  its  kind  yet  devised. 

To  fasten  the  foundation  on  a  flat  top-bar.  some  use  th^ 
roller   (fig.  149)   invented  by  the  late  Mr.  Hambaugh.     How- 


FASTENING    IT    IN    THE    FRAMES. 


393 


ever,  at  the  present  day,  the  frames  are  usually  made  with 
grooves  and  wedge  under  the  top  bar.  This  makes  the  inser- 
tion of  foundation  a  veiy  simple  matter  (fig.  69). 

694.  In  brood-frames,  it  may  be  fastened  with  or  with- 
out wires.  The  wire  used  is  malleable  tinned  wire,  No.  30. 
A  shallow  frame  needs  no  wires  at  all,  but  in  brood-combs, 
—to  insure  safety  and  prevent  warping — it  is  as  well  to  use 
two  or  three  horizontal  wires   as  in   fig.   150.     This  method 


Fig.    150. 

FOUNDATION     WIRED     IN     THK    BROOD-FRAME. 


of  horizontal-wiring  was  first  given  u.s  by  ]\[r.  Vandervort. 
to  whom  the  w^orld  is  also  indebted  for  the  spur  for  imbed- 
ding the  wire  in  the  foundation  (fig.  151).  The  excessive 
Aviring  resorted  to  by  some  is  worse  than  useless. 

Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  uses  light  wooden  splints  perpendicularly 
in  the  frame,  instead  of  wires  to  support  the  foundation. 
The  bottom  bar  of  his  frame  is  made  in  two  equal  pieces  so 
as  to  pinch  or  hold  the  foundation  between  them.  The  splints 
are   dipped   into   a  shallow  tin   pan   containing  hot   beeswax 


394 


COMIJ     FOUXDATIOX. 


until  they  are  saturated  with  wax  and  while  hot  they  are 
pressed  upon  the  surface  of  the  sheet  of  foundation  so  that 
they  may  be  perpendicular  when  the  frame  is  hung  in  tlie 
hive.      These   splints   about   1-16    of   an    inch    square   do   not 


Fig.    151. 

VAXDERVORT    IMBEDDING    SPUR. 


seem  to  he  at  all  in  the  way  when  the  combs  are  built  upon 
them  and  they  make  an  absolutelj^  solid  support  for  the  foun- 
dation. 

695.  As  comb-foundation  is  generally  bought  in  long 
strips,  it  may  be  well  to  give  directions  to  cut  it  into  pieces 
of  the  right  size  for  sections.  This  may  be  done  with  almost 
any  sharp  knife.  Have  a  pattern  of  the  size  of  the  pieces 
wanted,  made  of  hard  wood.  Take  six  or  eight  sheets  at 
one  time,  arranged  in  an  even  pile.  Lay  your  pattern  on 
them,  holding  it  down  firml}-.  dip  your  knife  in  strong  soap- 
suds, and  if  the  wax  is  at  the  proper  temperature,  you  will 
cut  the  eight  pieces  at  one  stroke  of  the  knife.  If  the  sheets 
have  a  tendency  to  slip  from  imder  the  pattern,  you  may  nail 
cleats  on  three  sides  of  it,  to   encase  the  pile  as  in  a  box. 

696.  Are  there  a  right  and  a  wrong-  way,  to  suspend 
foundation  in  the  frames'?  Or,  in  other  words,  should  two 
of  the  six  sides  of  the  cell  bo  perpendicular  or  horizontal? 
Huber.  and  Cheshire  after  him,  call  our  attention  to  the 
fact,  that  the  bees  always  build  their  combs,  with  two  sides 


FASTEXIN'd  IT   IN   THE   FRAMES. 


395 


of  the  cells  perpendicular.  Mr.  Cheshire  explams,  at  length, 
the  adaptation  and  advantages  of  this  natural  fact,  and  its 
bearing'   on    the   strength    of   the   comb.      From   his   explana- 


Fig.    152. 

THE    MILLER    SPLINTS    TO    FASTEN    FOUNDATION. 

(Forty    Years    Among    the    Bees.) 


tions.  it  results  that  foundation  suspended  thus :  ^y>s^ 
i.  e.,  with  two  perpendicular  sides,  would  be  properly  f  J 
fastened,  while  if  suspended  thus:  /  \  i.  e.,  with  ^^ 
two  horizontal  sides,  it  would  be  \  /  improperly  fas- 
tened. 

Most  of  the  machines  that  are  made  turn  out  foundation- 
sheets,  which  are  to  be  hung  horizontally,  when  the  cells 
are  in  the  proper  position.  But  in  the  cutting  of  sec- 
tion foundation,  the  sheets  are  often  made  so  that  they 
must  hang  the  other  way.  Yet  there  seems  to  be  no 
bad  result  when  this  is  done  and  the  bees  accept  the 
foundation,  no  matter  how  the  cells  are  turned.  It  is  not 
always  best  however  to  give  comb  foundation  in  full 
sheets  to  natural  swarms,  for  two  reasons.     The  first  is  that 


390  lOMB     FOUNDATION. 

advanced  by  W.  /^.  Hutchinson,  in  his  book  "Advanced  Bee- 
Culture''  and  which  has  been  mentioned  in  "Natural  Swarm- 
ing" (425).  The  other  is  that  when  a  hea\'y  swarm  is  hived 
on  full  sheets  of  comb  foundation,  the  g-reat  weight  of  the 
bees,  connected  with  the  unusual  heat  of  the  temperature  at 
that  time,  sometimes  causes  the  sheets  to  sag,  and  drone 
combs  may  be  the  result,  wherever  the  sheets  are  slightly 
stretched.  If  the  foundation  is  given  to  artificial  divisions  or 
to  weak  colonies  to  be  drawn,  such  results  are  not  to  be  feared. 
If  a  natural  swanii  for  some  reason  is  likely  to  be  unable 
to  promptly  fill  its  hive  with  combs,  the  apiarist  will  be 
astonished  to  see  how  much  of  a  help  full  sheets  of  comb 
foundation  will  be.  Secondary  swarms  will  always  profit  by 
its  use,  as  they  are  not  powerful  enough  to  cause  either  of 
the  inconveniences  above  mentioned. 

It  is  well,  however,  to  place  foundation  in  the  correct  posi- 
tion, whenever  practicable,  especially  with  the  light  grades  for 
sections,  which  are  more  in  danjrer  of  stretching  under 
ordinarj-^  circumstances. 

697.  It  is  astonishing',  as  well  as  pleasing,  to  see  how 
quickly  a  swarm  will  build  its  combs,  when  foundation  is 
used.  The  enthusiasm,  with  which  it  is  used  by  bee-keepers, 
is  only  exceeded  by  that  of  the  bees,  "in  being  hived  on  it." 
This  invention  certainly  deserves  to  rank  next  to  those  of  the 
movable-frames  (282)  and  of  the  honey-extractor  (749). 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

Pasturage  and  Overstocking. 
Pasturage. 

698.  The  quantity  of  nectar  yielded  by  different  flowers 
varies  considerably;  some  give  so  little,  that  a  bee  has  to 
visit  hundreds  to  fill  her  sack,  while  the  corolla  of  others 
overflows  with  it. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  there  is  a  blos- 
som, the  Protea  mellifera,  which  probably  surpasses  all  others 
in  the  abundance  of  its  nectar.  Indeed,  so  abundant  is  it, 
that  it  is  said,  the  natives  gather  it  by  dipping  it  from  the 
flowers,  with  spoons.  Mr.  De  Planta,  in  a  lengthy  and 
scientific  article  published  in  the  Revue  Internationale  d'  Api- 
culture, gives  an  account  of  his  analysis  of  some  samples  of 
this  honey,  which  he  had  received  through  the  "Moravian 
United  Brothers."  He  reports  it  to  have  the  scent  and  the 
taste  of  ripe  bananas,  and  considers  it  xery  sweet  and  good. 

699.  The  same  plants  yield  nectar  in  different  quantities 
in  different  comitries.  The  Caucasian  Comfrey,  from  which 
the  bees  reap  a  rich  harvest  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  is  of 
little  account  here. 

700.  Eveiy  bee-keeper  should  carefully  acquaint  himself 
with  the  honey-resources  of  his  own  neighborTiood.  We  will 
mention  particularly  some  of  the  most  important  plants  from 
which  bees  draw  their  supplies.  Since  Dzierzon's  discovei-y 
of  the  use  which  may  be  made  of  flour  (26'}'),  early  blossoms 
producing  pollen  only,  are  not  so  important.  All  the  varieties 
of  willow  abound  in  both  pollen  and  honey,  and  their  early 
blossoming  gives  them  a  special  value. 

"First  the  gray  willow's  glossy  pearls  they  steal, 
Or  rob  the  hazel  of  its  Q;ol(]pn  meal, 
397 


;^9S  PASTrRA(it    AXD    OVEKSTOCKIXC. 

While  the  gay  crocus  and  the  violet  blue, 
Yield  to  their  flexible  trunks  ambrosial  dew." 

— Evans. 

The  sugar-iiiaple  (Acer  saccharinus)  yields  a  large  supply 
of  delicious  honey,  and  its  blossoms,  hanging  in  graceful 
fringes,  will  be  alive  with  bees. 

In  some  sections,  the  wild  gooseberry  is  a  valuable  help 
to  the  bees,  as  it  blossoms  vei-y  early,  and  they  work  eagerly 
on  it. 

Of  the  fruit  trees,  the  apricot,  peach,  plum,  cherry  and 
pear,  are  great  favorites;  but  none  furnishes  so  much  honey 
as  the  apple. 

The  dandelion,  whose  blossoms  furnish  pollen  and  honey, 
when  the  yield  from  the  fruit  trees  is  nearly  over,  is  worthy 
of  rank  among  honey-producing  plants. 

The  tulip  tree  (Liriodendron)  is  one  of  the  greatest 
honey-producing  trees  in  the  world.  As  its  blossoms 
expand  in  succession^  new  swarms  will  sometimes  fill  their 
hives  from  this  source  alone.  The  honey,  though  dark,  is  of 
a  good  flavor.  This  tree  often  attains  a  height  of  over  one 
hundred  feet,  and  its  rich  foliage,  with  its  large  blossoms 
of  mingled  green  and  yellow,  make  it  a  most  beautiful  sight. 

The  common  locust  (Fig,  153),  is  a  very  desirable  tree 
for  the  vicinity  of  an  apiary,  yielding  much  honey  when  it 
is  peculiarly  needed  by  the  bees. 

The  wild  eheriy  blooms  about  the  same  time. 

701.  Of  all  the  sources  from  which  bees  derive  their  sup- 
plies, white  clover  (Fig.  154),  is  usually  the  most  important. 
It  yields  large  quantities  of  very  pure  white  honey,  and 
wherever  it  abounds,  the  bee  will  find  a  rich  harvest.  In 
most  parts  of  this  counti-y  it  seems  to  be  the  chief  reliance 
of  the  apiary.  Blossommg  at  a  season  of  the  year  when  the 
weather  is  usually  both  dry  and  hot,  and  the  bees  gathering 
its  honey  after  the  sun  has  dried  off  the  dew,  if  is  ready  to 
be  sealed  over  almost  at  once. 

It  is  at   the  blossoming  of  this  important  plant   that  the 


CLOVER. 


398 


main  crop  of  honey  usually  begins,  and  that  the  bees  prop- 
agate in  the  greatest  number. 


Fig.    153. 

LOCUST    BLOSSOMS. 

("From    the    .American     Bee    .Tournal.) 


400 


PASTURAGE    AND    OVERSTOCKING. 


The  flowers  of  red  clover  (fig,  157)  also  produce  a  large 
quantity  of  nectar;  unfortunately  its  corollas  are  usually 
too  deep  for  the  tongue  of  our  bees.     Yet  sometimes,  in  Sum- 


Fig.    154. 
WHITE    CLOVER. 

(From    Vilmorin-Andrieux,    Paris. 


mer.  they  can  reach  the  nectar,  either  because  its  corollas  are 
shorter  on  account  of  dryness,  or  because  they  are  more 
copiously  filled. 


Fig.    155. 

IMPLEMENT    FOR    ASCERTAINING    THE    LENGTH    OF    TONGUE    OF    BEES. 

(From  the  American  Bee  Journal.) 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  select,  for  breeding,  bees  with 
longer  tongues,  in  order  to  secure  the  honey  of  the  red  clover 


Plate  24. 


DR.  E.  F.  PHILLIPS, 
Of    the    Bureau    of    Entomology   at   Washington,    Author    of 
* 'Bee-Keeping,''  and  several  United  States  Bulletins  on  Bees. 

Thi«  uTit€T  i«  mentionpd  pajfcs  474,  4S2,  4S:^,  4S7,  4S9. 


PRINCIPAL    SOURCES. 


401 


blossom  at  all  times.  The  Italian  bee  seems  to  bf  in  advanc-o 
of  other  races,  in  this  respect,  and  so-called  ^'red-clover 
queens"  have  been  bred  and  offered  for  sale.  The  attempt  is 
praiseworthy,  but  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
traits   of  this   kind   are  verj-  slow  to  become   fixed   and   we 


•-    .^-*^>-?^ 


Fig.    156. 

ALFALFA     OR     LUCERNE. 

(From    Vilmorin-Andrieux.    Paris.) 

should  beware  of  too  much  enthusiasm.  Very'  fugitive  prog- 
ress will  probably  be  made  for  a  long  time,  before  anything 
fixed  is  secured. 

Bee-keepers  may  ascertain  for  themseh'es  the  comparative 
length  of  tongue  of  their  bees,  by  the  help  of  a  very  simple 


402 


PASTURAGE    AND    OVERSTOCKING. 


device  (Fig.  155).  A  smooth  glass  surface  moistened  with 
thin  honey  is  covered  with  a  screen  placed  in  a  slanting  posi- 
tion and  graduated.  The  bees  which  reach  the  farthest  on 
the  glass  may  be  selected  for  breeding,  provided  they  are 
equally  proficient  in  other  respects. 


Fig.    157. 

RED     CLOVER. 

(From    Vilmorin-Andrieux,    Paris.) 


Another  desirable  attainment  is  red  clover  with  a  shorter 
corolla.  This  will  probably  be  secured  only  by  hybridiza- 
tion. 

702.     The  linden,  or  bass-wood  {TiUa  Americana,  fig.  158^, 


PASTURAGE. 


403 


yields  white  honey  of  a  strong  flavor,  and,  as  it  blossoms 
when  both  the  swarms  and  parent-colonies  are  usually  popu- 
lous, the  weather  settled,  and  other  bee-forage  scarce,  its  value 
to  the  bee-keeper  is  great. 

"Here  their  delicious  task,  the  fervent  bees 
In  swarming  millions  tend:  around,  athwart, 
Through  the  soft  air  the  busy  nations  fly, 
Cling  to  the  bud,  and  with  inserted  tube. 
Suck  its  pure  essence,  its  ethereal  soul." 

— Thomson. 

This  majestic  tree,  adorned  with  beautiful  clusters  of 
fragrant  blossoms,  is  well  worth  attention  as  an  ornamental 
shade-tree.  By  adorning  our 
villages  and  countiy  residences 
with  a  fair  allowance  of  tulip, 
linden,  and  such  other  trees  as 
are  not  onl}-  beautiful  to  the  eye, 
but  attractive  to  bees,  the  honey- 
resources  of  the  comitry  might, 
in  process  of  time,  be  greatly 
increased.  In  many  disaicts. 
locust  and  basswood  planta- 
tions would  be  valuable  for  their 
timber  alone. 

703.  TVe  have  also  a  variety 
of  clover  imported  from  Sweden, 
which  grows  as  tall  as  the  red 
clover,  bears  many  blossoms  on 
a   stalk,   in   size   resembling-  the 


Fig.    138. 


LIXDEX     0:i     BASSWOOD. 


(From    Vilmorin-Andrieux,    Pari.s.) 


white, .  and^  while  it  answers 
admirably  for  bees,  is  preferred 
by  cattle  to  almost  any  other 
kind  of  grass.  It  is  known 
by  the  name  of  Alsike  or  Swedish  clover  (Fig.  159). 

The  objection   made   to   this   clover  is  that   its  stem  is  so 
light  that  it  falls  to  the  gi'ound.     This  is  remedied  by  sowing 


404 


PASTrKA(;E    AND    OVERSTOCKING. 


it  with  limotliy.     The  latter  helps  it  to  stand.     It  is  as  good 
for  honey  as  white  clover. 

704,  The  raspberry  furnishes  a  most  delicious  honey. 
In  flavor  it  is  superior  to  that  from  the  white  clover.  The 
sides  of  the  roads^  the  borders  of  the  fields^  and  the  pas- 
tures of  much  of  the  "hill-countrv"  of  New  England,  and  of 


Fig.    159. 

ALSIKE    CLOVER. 

(From    Vilmorin-Andrieux,    Paris.) 


the  great  Northwest,  from  Wisconsin  to  Alaska,  abound  with 
the  wild  red  raspberiy.  When  it  is  in  blossom,  bees  hold 
even  the  white  clover  in  light  esteem.  Its  drooping  blossoms 
protect  the  honey  from  moisture,  and  they  can  work  upon 
it  when  the  Aveather  is  so  wet  that  they  can  obtain  nothing 


PASTURAGE. 


405 


from  ihe  upright  blossoms  of  the  clover.  In  spite  of  the 
barrenness  of  the  soil,  the  precipitous  and  rocky  lands,  where 
it  most  abounds,  might  be  made  almost  as  valuable  as  some 
of  the  vine-clad  terraces  of  the  mountain  districts  of  Europe. 

The  Borage  {Borago  ofpcinalis),  (Fig.  160),  blossoms  con- 
tinuall}^  from  June  until  severe  frost,  and,  like  the  raspberiy, 
is  frequented  by  bees  even  in  moist  weather.  The  honey  from 
it  is  of  a  superior  quality. 

The  Canada  thistle,  the  Viper  bugloss  yield  good  honey  after 


Fig.   160. 

BORAGE. 

(From    Vilmorin-Andrieux,    Paris.) 


white  clover  has  begun  to  fail.     But  these  plants  are  troubls- 
some,  for  they  cannot  easily  be  gotten  rid  of. 

705.  Melilot,  or  sweet  clover  (fig.  161),  which  grows  on 
any  barren  or  rocky  soil  without  cultivation,  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  honey-plants.  It  will  not  always  thrive,  how- 
ever, where  cattle  can  graze  on  it,  as  they  often  destroy  it. 


4UG 


PASTURAGE    AND    OVERSTOCKING. 


If  cut  early  to  be  used  as  forage,  it  blooms  later  than  white 
clover  and  till  frost.    It  is  a  biennial. 

According  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  United 
States  there  are  two  kinds  of  yellow  melilot,  ''McJilotus  ofli- 
cinalis"  (Fig.  162)  a  biennial,  and  ''melilotus  indica."  smaller 
and    annual. 


i'^ 


jVt*' 


^i 


[j^' 


fi, 


Fig.    161. 

SWEET    CLOVER. 

Melilotus   Alba. 
(From    Vilniorin-Andrieu.x.    Paris.) 


The  different  varieties  of  smart-weeds  {Persicaria),  golden- 
rod,  buckwheat,  asters,  iron-weed,  Spanish-needles  in  low 
lands  and  marshy  places,  give  a  verj^  abundant  honey-crop 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  Summer.  They  form  the  bulk  of 
what  is  called  the  "Fall  crop"  in  this  latitude. 


PASTURAGE. 


407 


In  California  the  Sage,  in  Texas  tlie  Horse-mint,  in  Florida 
the  Mangi'ove,  form  the  main  honey-harvests  of  those  coun- 
tries. 

In  the  irrigated  portions  of  the  arid  West,  the  Alfalfa  (Fig. 


Fig.    162. 

YELLOW    OR    OFFICINAL    MELILOT. 

(From   L'Apicoltore.) 


156)  is  grown  profusely,  usually  giving  three  crops  of  hay 
and  at  each  blooming  an  abundance  of  the  most  delicious  white 
honey.     Alfalfa  honey  is  a  staple  on  the  market. 


408 


PASTURAGE  AND  OVERSTOCKING. 


706.  We  here  present  a  list  of  the  flowers  known  as 
being  visited  by  the  bees  for  their  nectar  or  for  their  pollen. 
We  have  grouped  them  in  Families,  and  we  give  engravings 
of  some  of  their  most  prominent  types,  in  order  to  help  the 
Apiarist  in  his  investigation.  But  our  list  is  far  from  being 
complete. 


Fig.    163. 

PERSICARIA,      COMMONLY     CALLED     "HEARTSEASE. 

(From    Forty    Years    Among    the    Bees.) 


Compositae:— Dandelion,  Thistle,  Chamomile,  Sunflower, 
Ox-eye  Daisy,  Goldenrod  (Fig.  164),  Coreopsis,  Lettuce, 
Chicory,  Boneset,  Iron-weed,  Indian  Plantain,  Fire-weed, 
Aster    (figures   165,    166),    Burr-Marigold,    Spanish    Needles, 


PAf<TL'RA(iK. 


400 


Coueflower,  Star  Thistle,  Thoroughwort,  Butterweed,  Sneeze- 
wort,  Blue  Bottle,  Rag-w^eed,  several  varieties  of  Echinops, 
one  of  which,  the   Spherocephalus,  was  introduced  here  by 


Fig.    164. 

GOLDEV     ROD    OR     SOLIDAGO. 

(From    Vilmorin-Andrieux,    Paris.) 


Fig.    165. 

ASTER  ROSEUS. 


Fig.    166. 

ASTER     TRADESCANTI. 


Mr.  Chapman.  The  Echinops  ritro  (smaller  in  size)  (Fig.  167), 
is  cultivated  in  Europe  on  account  of  its  beautiful  blue  heads, 


410 


PASTURAGE   AND    OVERSTOCKI.\ 


Fig.    167. 

ECHINOPS     RITRO. 


Fig.    168. 
HELENIUM    TENUIFOLIUM. 


Fig.    169. 

JUDAS     TREE. 

(From    L'Apicoltore.) 


PASTUkAGE. 


411 


This   family   includes   also    the   Helenium   tenuifolium    (Fig. 
168),  which  is  the  southern  "sneeze  weed."  .  H.  Brown.) 

L 


Fig.    170. 

CLEOME    PUNGENS. 


Le^'Mmmosae;— Judas  tree    (Fig.   169),  which  blooms  very 
early,   Locust  tree.  Honey  Locust,   Wistaria,  white,  red  a"nd 


Fig.    171. 

KNOT-WEED. 

(Polygonum  orientale.) 


alsike  Clover,  Melilot   (Fig.  161),  Lucerne  or  Alfalfa,  Peas, 
Beans,   Vetches,   Lentils,    False-Indigo,   Partridge   pea.   Wild 


41; 


PASTURAGE    AND    OXTHSTIXKIXG. 


Senna,    Milk    vetch,    Yelknv-Wood,    Mesquit-lree    of    Texas, 
Cleome  integrifolia  and  pungens   (Fig.  170). 

Labiatac—  {trom  Labium,  a  lip).  Ground  Ivy,  Sage,  Mint, 
HorehoLind,   Catnip,  Motherwort,  Horse-Mint,  Basil,  Hyssop, 


Fig.    172. 
BUCKWHEAT. 

(From   Vilmorin-Andrieux,    Paris.) 


Bergamot,  Marjoram,  Thyme,  Melissa,  Dead  Nettle,  Brunei  la, 
Pennyroyal. 

Bosaceae  :  —  ^Xi\d    Rose,     Cherry,     Plum,     Peach,     Apricot. 


PASTURAGE. 


41S 


Apple,  Pear,  Quince,  Hawthorne,  Blackberry,  Raspberry, 
Strawberry,  Juneberry,  Cinquefoil,  Bowmansroot,  Queen  ol 
the  Prairie,  Meadow  Sweet.  Pvracantha. 

Polygonacae:— Buckwheat,    Lady    Thumb,    Rhubarb,    Sor- 
rel, and  a  variety  of  Knot-weeds  or  Persicarias  (Fig.  171). 


Fig.    173. 

SAGE. 

(From    Vilmorin-Aiidrieux,    Paris.) 


Borraghiaceae'.  —  Bm'age    (Fig.    143).     Yiper-bugloss.   Com- 
frey,  Phacelia,  Virginia  Lungr^vort.  Hound's  tongue,  Gromwell. 

False  Gromwell. 

.S'cro?9/?H/^War<'r/e:-Scrophularir.  nodosa    (Simpson's  honey- 


414 


PASTURAGE  AND  OVERSTOCKING. 


Fig.  174. 

ASCLEPIAS  TUBEROSA.   PLEVRISY  ROOT. 


Fig.  175. 
ASCLEPIAS  SYRIACA. 


plant),      Veronicas,      Yellow      Jessamine      of      the      South, 
whose  honej'^  is  poisonous.— (Dr.  J.  P.  H.  Brown.) 

Asclepiadaceae:  —  The  common  Milk- 
weed (Fig.  175),  or  Silkweed,  Asclepias 
cornuti,  is  much  frequented  by  bees, 
but  these  visits  are  often  fatal  to  them. 
All  the  grains  of  pollen  of  the  Silkweed, 
in  each  anther,  are  collected  in  a  com- 
pact mass,  inclosed  in  a  sack;  these 
sacks  are  united  in  pairs  (a.  Fig.  176) 
by  a  kind  of  thread,  terminated  by  a 
small,  viscous  gland.  These  threads 
stick  to  the  feet.     (h.  Fig.  176)  and  often  fairs;   b,  the  same  at- 

tarhed   to    a   bees   foot. 

to  the  labial  palpi  (46)  of  the  bees,  who  (From  "A  b  c  of  Bee- 
cannot  easily  get  rid  of  them,  and  perish. 
In  some  parts  of  Ohio  and  Westei-n  Illinois,  a  variety  of  the 
common  kind,  the  Asclepias  Sullivantii,  does  not  present  to 
bees  these  difficulties  to  the  same  degree.  We  have  seen  bees 
gathering  honey  freely  on  four  or  five  different  varieties 
which  grow  in  our  neighborhood,  and  especially  on  the  Tube- 


Fig.   176. 

POLLEX     OF    MILKWEED. 

a,    sacs    of    pollen    in 


PASTtJRAGE. 


415 


rosa  or  Pleurisy  root  (Fig.  174),  fitly  recommended  by  Jamrs 
Heddon.    This  kind  is  noticeable  by  its  orange  flowers. 


Fig.   177. 

EPILOBIUM     SPICATUM. 

(From  Vilmorin-Andrieux.) 


Fig.    17i 
VALERIAN. 

(From  Vilmorin-Andrieux.) 


Fig.    179. 

OENOTHERA    Gr.ANDIFLORA. 

(From  Vilmorin-Andrieux.) 


Cmci/emf?:— Rape,  Mustard,   Cabbage,  Radish,  Candytuft, 
stock,  Wallflower,  Moonwort,  Sweet  Alyssum,  Cress. 


-4in 


PASTURAGE    AND    OVERSTOCKING. 


Ericaceae:  — This    family,    on    the    Old    Continent,    includes 
the  numerous  varieties  of  Heath,  on  which  bees  reap  a  large 


Fig.   180. 

HYACINTH. 

(From  Vilmorin-Andrieux.) 


harvest   of  inferior  honey,   so   thick   that   it   is  impossible  to 
extract  it.     Blueberrv,  Sour  Wood.  Laurel,  Clethra  alnifolia, 


v<^" 


Fig.    181. 

,n.y    OF    THE    VALLKY 


4|^f^ 


Fig.    182. 

SOLOMON'S     SE.\L. 


Cowberi-y,    Huckleberry,    TThortleberry,    Gaultheria    procum- 
bens,  or  Creeping:  wintergrreen,—  which  is  indicated,  by  some 


PASTURAGE. 


41- 


English  bee-keepers,  as  preventing  bees  from  stinging  the 
hands  when  they  are  rubbed  with  its  leaves,— belong  to  this 
family. 

Valerianaceae: -Yalermn  (Fig.  178),  Com  Salad  or  Lamb 
lettuce,  belong  to  this  family. 

0  nag  race  ae  :— (Fivening  Primrose  family)  Gaura,  Fusehia, 
Oenothera   (Fig.  179)  Epilobium   (Willow  Herb,  Fig  177). 

Liliaceae:— Lilies,  Asparagus.  Wild  Hyacinth  (Fig.  180), 
Star  of  Bethlehem,  Lily  of  the  Valley   (Fig.  181),  Solomon's 


Fig.    183. 

MIGXOXETTE. 

Seal  (Fig.  182),  Dog's  tooth  Violet,  three-headed  Night-shade, 
Garlic,  Onion,  Crocus. 

Malvaceae:  — Common  Mallows,  and  others,  Hollyhock,  Cot- 
ton, Abutilon. 

Caprifoliaceae  :—'H.ouey:^nc'k\e.  Snow  and  Coral  berries. 
Arrow-wood. 

Cuciirhitaceae  :—CnQmnher,  Melon,  Squash,  Gourd. 

UmbeUiferae:—Favs\ey.  Angelica,  Lovage.  Fennel.  Parsnip. 
Coriander,  Cow-parsnip. 

Caryophyllaceae:— Fink,  Lychnis,  Chickweed,  Saponaria. 

We  can  name  also:  Rib-Grass,  or  Plantain,  Goosefoot, 
Blue-eyed    grass,    Corn-flag,    Buckthorn,    BarbeiTy,     Sumac, 


418 


PASTURAGE  AND  OVERSTOCKING. 


Grape-vine,  Polanisia,  Button  weed,  Mignonette,  or  Reseda 
(Fig.  183),  Teasel,  Skunk  cabbage,  Waterleaf,  Hemp,  Touch- 
me-not,  Amaranth,  Crowfoot,  St.  Johnswort,  and  among  the 
trees:  Willow,  Poplar,  which  have  their  sexual  organs  on  dif- 
ferent  trees;    Oak,    Walnut,    Hickory,    Beech,   Birch,    Alder, 


r^TvK^ 


Fig.    184. 
CRIMSON     CLOVER. 

(From  Vilmorin-Andrieux.) 


Elm,  Hazelnut,  Maple,  whose  organs  of  reproduction  are 
separated,  although  on  the  same  tree. 

Horse  chestnut.  Persimmon,  Gum-tree,  Dog-wood,  Button- 
bush,  Cypress,  Liquidambar,  Linden. 

We  should  mention  also,  Ailanthus  glandulosus  (Varnish 
tree   of    China),    a   large,   ornamental   tree,   which   gives   an 


PASTTRAGE. 


41d 


abundance  of  honey  so  bad  in  taste,  as  to  compel  the  bee- 
keepers who  have  some  in  their  neighborhood  to  extract  it 
as  soon  as  it  is  gathered,  that  it  may  not  injure  the  quality 
of  their  crop. 

Bees  also  visit  some  of  the  plants  of  the  grass  family,  such 


Fig.    185. 

SAINFOIN    OR    ESPABCET. 

(From  Vilmorin-Andrieux. ) 


as  corn  and  sorghum.  A  plant  of  this  family,  the  Setaria, 
or  bristly  foxtail  gTass,  is  known  in  France  under  the  name 
of  accroclie-abeilles,  (bee-catcher).  Its  curved  hairs  grasp 
the  bees*  legs,  and  the  poor  insects,  unable  to  free  themselves, 
are  soon  exhausted,  and  die. 


420  PA8Tl"KA(iE    AND    OVERSTOCKING. 

Strange  to  say,  the  principal  crop  of  honey  in  a  country 
uiay  be  harvested  from  a  flower  which  yields  nothing  in 
other  countries.  The  white  clover,  so  well  known  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley  as  the  very  best  melliferous  plant,  yields 
nothing  in  Switzerland.  The  alfalfa,  mentioned  as  the  prin- 
cipal crop  of  Colorado,  Utah,  Nevada,  is  not  a  honey  pro- 
ducer in  Illinois.  Some  plants  also  attract  the  bees  con- 
tinuously, by  their  fragrance,  which  yield  little  or  no  nectar. 

The  Eryngium  giganteum  is  one  of  these.  Mr.  Bertrand 
tested  its  yield  by  marking  with  flour  l)ees  that  were  working 
upon  it.  The  same  bee  was  seen  to  work  about  the  same 
bunch  of  thesf  flowers,  for  five  consecutive  hours,  without  any 
apparent  result.  He  nicknamed  this  plant  "the  honey-bee's 
bar-room"  because  the  more  they  sip,  the  drier  they  are. 

As  a  rule  it  is  not  advisable  to  plant  for  honey  anything 
that  has  not  value  otherwise  either  as  forage,  ornament  or 
shade.  For  this  very  reason,  however,  there  are  foreign 
forage  plants  which  would  be  desirable  everywhere.  We  will 
name  among  these  the  Crimson  Clover  and  the  Sainfoin  or 
esparcet,  of  which  we  give  engravings,  figs.  184  and  1S5.  Tl/e 
Sainfoin  (healthy  hay)  is  a  very  desirable  forage  plant. 

Overstocking, 
-our  country  not  ix  danger  of  being  overstocked  with 

BEES. 

707.  If  the  opinions,  entertained  by  some,  as  to  the 
danger  of  overstocking  were  correct,  bee-keeping  in  this  coun- 
tiy  would  always  have  been  an  insignificant  pursuit. 

It  is  difficult  to  repress  a  smile  when  the  owner  of  a  few 
hives,  in  a  district  where  hundreds  might  be  made  to  pros- 
per, gravely  imputes  his  ill-success  to  the  fact,  that  too  many 
bees  are  kept  in  his  vicinity.  If,  in  the  Spring,  a  colony  of 
bees  is  prosperous  and  healthy,  it  will  gather  abundant  stores, 
in  a  favorable  season,  even  if  many  equally  strong  are  in  its 
immediate  vicinity;  while,  if  it  is  feeble,  it  will  be  of  little 


UV'EKSTOCKING.  ^21 

or  no  value,  even  if  it  is  in  "a  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey,"  and  there  is  not  another  colony  within  a  dozen  miles 
of  it. 

As  the  great  Napoleon  gained  many  of  his  victories  by 
having  an  overwhelmmg  force  at  the  riglit  place,  in  the  right 
time,  so  the  bee-keeper  must  have  strong  colonies,  when  num- 
bers can  be  turned  to  the  best  account.  If  they  become 
strong  only  Avhen  they  can  do  nothing  but  consume  what 
little  honey  has  been  previously  gathered,  he  is  like  a  farmer 
who  suffers  his  crops  to  rot  on  the  ground,  and  then  hires  a 
set  of  idlers  to  eat  him  out  of  house  and  home. 

70S.  Although  bees  can  fly,  in  search  of  food,  over  three 
miles,  still,  //  it  is  not  within  a  circle  of  about  two  miles  in 
every  direction  from  the  apiary^  they  will  he  able  to  store  but 
little  surplus  honey.*  It  pasturage  abounds  within  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  from  their  hives,  so  much  the  better;  there  is 
no  great  advantage,  however,  in  having  it  close  to  them, 
unless  there  is  a  great  supply,  as  bees,  when  they  leave  the 
hive,  seldom  alight  upon  the  neighboring  flowers.  The  instinct 
to  fly  some  distance  seems  to  have  been  given  them  to  pre- 
vent them  from  wasting  their  time  in  prying  into  flowers 
already  despoiled  of  their  sweets  by  previous  gatherers. 

Bees  will  go  farthest  in  a  direction  where  no  obstacles 
exist,  such  as  hills,  Avoods  or  large  areas  of  unproductive  land. 
If  the  blossoms  from  which  they  gather  honey  extend  out  in 
a  continuous  stretch  in  one  direction,  they  may  travel  iive 
miles  away  or  perhaps  farther  when  the  wind  brings  to  them 
the  smell  of  flowers.  But  the  fact  that  apiaries  only  four 
miles  apart  give  different  yields  under  the  same  management 
shows  that  the  opportunities  differ  even  at  that  short  distance. 
"Mr.  Kaden,  of  Mayence,  thinks  that  the  range  of  the  bee's 
flight  does  not  usually  extend  more  than  three  miles  in  all 
directions.      Several    years    ago,    a    vessel,    laden    with    sugar, 


*  "Judging  from  the  sweep  that  bees  take  from  the  side  of  a  railroad 
irain  in  motion,  we  should  estimate  their  pace  at  about  thirty  miles  an 
hour.  This  would  give  them  four  minutes  to  reach  the  extremity  of 
their   common    range."— London    Quartcrlii  Review. 


422  PASTURAGE   AND    OVERSTOCKING. 

anchored  off  Mayence,  and  was  soon  visited  by  the  bees  of  the 
neighborhood,  which  continued  to  pass  to  and  from  the  vessel 
from  dawn  to  dark.  One  morning,  when  the  bees  were  in  full 
flight,  the  vessel  sailed  up  the  river.  For  a  short  time,  the 
bees  continued  to  fly  as  numerously  as  before;  but  gradually 
the  number  diminished,  and,  in  the  course  of  half  an  Jiour,  all 
had  ceased  to  follow  the  vessel,  which  had,  meanwhile,  sailed 
more  than  four  miles." — Bienenzeitung,  1854,  p.  83. 

Our  own  experience  corroborates  the  statements  of  Kaden. 
We  have  known  strong  colonies  of  bees  to  starve  upon  the 
hills  in  a  year  of  drouth,  while  the  Mississippi  bottoms,  less 
than  four  miles  distant,  which  had  been  overflowed  during  the 
Spiing,  were  yielding  a  large  crop.  It  is  evident  that  dis- 
tricts, where  honey  blossoms  are  scarce,  can  be  much  more 
readily  overstocked  than  those  rich  lands  which  are  covered 
with  blossoms,  the  greater  part  of  the  Summer.  A  great 
amount  of  land  in  cultivation^  is  not  always  a  hindrance  to 
honey  production,  for  cultivated  lands  often  grow  weeds, 
which  yield  an  abundance  of  honey.  Heartsease  and  Spanish 
needle  grow  plentifully  in  cornfields  and  wheat  stubble  in 
wet  seasons.    Pasture  lands  abound  with  white  clover. 

709.  It  is  impossible  to  give  the  exact  number  of  colo- 
nies that  a  country  can  support  profitably.  In  poor  locations, 
a  few  hives  will  probably  harvest  all  the  honey  to  be  found, 
while  some  districts  can  support  perhaps  a  hundred  or  more 
to  the  square  mile.  The  bee-keeper  must  be  his  own  judge,  as 
to  the  honey  capacity  of  his  district. 

**When  a  large  flock  of  sheep,"  says  Oettl,  "is  grazing  on  a 
limited  area,  there  may  soon  be  a  deficiency  of  pasturage.  But 
this  cannot  be  asserted  of  bees,  as  a  good  honey-district  cannot 
readily  be  overstocked  with  them.  To-day,  when  the  air  is 
moist  and  warm,  the  plants  may  yield  a  superabundance  of 
nectar;  while  to-morrow  being  cold  and  wet,  there  may  be  a 
total  want  of  it.  When  there  is  suflScient  heat  and  moisture,  the 
saccharine  juices  of  plants  will  readily  fill  the  nectaries,  and 
will  be  quickly  replenished  when  carried  off  by  the  bees.  Every 
cold  night  checks  the  flow  of  honey,  and  every  clear,  warm  day 


OVERSTOCKING.  423 

reopens  the  fountains.  The  flowers  expanded  today  must  be 
visited  while  open;  for,  if  left  to  wither,  their  stores  are  lost. 
The  same  remarks  will  apply  substantially  in  the  case  of 
honey-dews.  Hence,  bees  cannot,  as  many  suppose,  collect  to- 
morrow what  is  left  ungathercd  to-day,  as  sheep  may  graze 
hereafter  on  the  pasturage  they  do  not  need  now.  Strong  col- 
onies and  large  apiaries  are  in  a  position  to  coMect  ample  stores 
when  forage  suddenly  abounds,  while,  by  patient,  persevering 
industry,  they  may  still  gather  a  suflSciency,  and  even  a  surplus, 
when  the  supply  is  small,  but  more  regular  ard  protracted." 

Although  we  believe  that  a  district  can  be  overstocked,  so 
as  to  make  bee-culture  unprofitable,  yet  the  above  extract 
gives  a  correct  view  of  the  honey  harvest,  which  depends 
much  on  the  weather,  and  must  be  gathered  when  produced. 

The  same  able  Apiarist,  whose  golden  rule  in  bee-keeping 
was,  to  keep  none  but  strong  colonies,  says  that  in  the  lapse 
of  twenty  years  since  he  established  his  apiaiy,  there  has  not 
occurred  a  season  in  which  the  bees  did  not  procure  adequate 
supplies  for  themselves,  and  a  surplus  besides.  Sometimes, 
indeed,  he  came  near  despairing,  when  April,  May,  and  June 
were  continually  cold,  wet,  and  unproductive;  but  in  July, 
his  strong  colonies  speedily  filled  their  garners,  and  stored 
up  some  treasure  for  him;  while,  in  such  seasons,  small  colo- 
nies could  not  even  gather  enough  to  keep  them  from  starva- 
tion. 

In  countries  where  the  entire  area  of  the  farmmg  land  is 
devoted  to  honey-producing  plants,— as  in  the  irrigated  plains 
of  Colorado,  where  the  only  crop  is  alfalfa  and  thousands 
of  acres  of  this  plant  are  to  be  seen  in  a  body, — the  over- 
stocking of  land  with  bees  is  almost  an  impossibility^  Ex- 
amples of  this  kind  are  to  be  fomid  in  California,  with  a 
natural  honey  plant,  the  sage,  which  covers  the  uncultivated 
hillsides.  In  New  York  State,  buckwheat  is  raised  in  such 
large  areas  that  as  many  as  seven  hmidred  colonies  are  kept 
in  one  apiary.  We  will  name  that  of  Mr.  E.  W.  Alexander 
of  Delanson,  N.  Y.,  the  description  of  whose  methods 
attracted  much  attention  in  "Gleaninos  in  Bee  Culture"  at  the 


424  PASTURAGE    AND    OVERSTOCKING. 

end  of  the  year  1905.  Mr.  Alexander  reported  a  crop  of 
about  TOjOOO  lbs.  of  honey  m  one  season.  But  m  years  of 
scarcity  of  honey,  it  is  quite  probable  that  many  colonies  will 
starve  in  a  veiy  large  apiary,  while  a  small  apiary  might 
gather  enough  for  AVinter. 

710.  According  to  Oettl  (p.  389),  Bohemia  contained 
1(30,000  colonies  in  1853,  from  a  careful  estimate,  and  he 
thought  the  country  could  readily  support  four  times  that 
number.     This  province  contains  19,822  square  English  miles. 

We  say  square  English  miles,  and  we  insist  on  the  word 
English,  for  we  have  read  of  reports  from  Germany,  show- 
ing incredible  figures  as  to  the  number  of  bees,  and  the  amount 
of  beeswax  and  honey  gathered  on  areas  of  a  few  square 
miles;  and  yet,  some  of  these  reports  may  have  been  true, 
for  there  are  different  sized  miles,  in  Germany.  The  German 
geographical  mile  is  equal  to  4.  611-1000  English  miles;  the 
German  short  mile,  to  3.  897-1000 ;  and  the  German  long  mile 
to  5.  753-1000,  &c.,  the  shortest  German  square  mile  being  as 
about  15  of  the  English,  and  the  long  being  about  equal  to 
33  of  our  square  miles.  This  Ave  glean  from  "Chambers 
Encyclopedia." 

According  to  an  official  report,  there  were  in  Denmark,  in 
1838,  eighty-six  thousand  and  thirty-six  colonies  of  bees.  The 
annual  product  of  honey  appears  to  have  been  about  1,841,- 
800  lbs.  In  1855,  the  export  of  wax  from  that  country  was 
118,379  lbs. 

In  1856,  according  to  official  returns,  there  were  58,964 
colonies  of  bees  in  the  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg. 

In  1S57,  the  yield  of  honey  and  wax  in  the  empire  of 
Austria  was  estimated  to  be  worth  ovei-  seven  millions  of 
dollars. 

Doubtless,  in  these  districts,  where  honey  is  so  largely  pro- 
duced, great  attention  is  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  crops 
which,  while  in  themselves  profitable,  afff)rd  abundant  pas- 
turage for  bees. 

711.     Galifornia,  which  seems  to  be  tlie   Eldorado  of  bee- 


OVERSTOCKING.  425 

culture,  can  probably  support  the  greatest  number  of  bees 
to  the  square  mile,  and  yet  in  some  seasons  the  bees  starve 
there  in  great  numbers  owing  to  the  drouth. 

We  have  no  official  statistics  of  the  honey  crops  of  the 
United  States,  but  the  following  extract  from  the  American 
Bee-Journal  (1886),  will  give  an  idea  of  the  immensity  of 
our  honey  resources,  considering  the  comparatively  small 
areas  of  this  country  now  occupied  by  Apiarists. 

' '  The  California  Grocer  says  that  the  crop  of  1885  was 
about  1,250,000  pounds.  The  foreign  export  from  San  Fran- 
cisco during  the  year  was  approximately  8,800  cases.  The  ship- 
ments East  by  rail  were  360,000  pounds  from  San  Francisco, 
and  910,000  pounds  from  Los  Angeles,  including  both  comb  and 
extracted.  We  notice  that  another  California  paper  estimates 
the  crop  of  1885  at  2,000,000  pounds,  and  the  crop  of  the 
United  States  for  1885  was  put  down  at  26,000,000  pounds.  We 
do  not  think  these  figures  are  quite  large  enough,  though  it 
was  an  exceedingly  poor  crop." 

But  former  years  have  given  still  better  results.  Through 
the  courtesy  of  Mr.  N.  W.  McLain,  of  the  U.  S.  Apicultural 
Station,  we  have  received  the  following  statistics  from  "The 
Resources  of  California,  1881": 

The  honey  shipped  from  Ventura  County,  California,  dur- 
ing 1880  amounted  to  1,050,000  lbs.  The  Pacific  Coast  Steam- 
ship Company  of  San  Diego  shipped  1,191,800  pounds  of 
honey  from  that  county  in  the  same  year. 

The  crop  of  the  five  lower  counties  in  California  that  year, 
was  estimated  by  several  parties  at  over  three  million  pounds. 

According  to  a  report  of  S.  D.  Stone,  Clerk  of  the  Mer- 
chants' Exchange  of  San  Francisco,  the  actual  amount  of 
honey  shipped  to  that  city  from  different  parts  of  California 
in  the  sixteen  months  ending  ^lay  1,  1881,  was  4,340,400 
pounds,  equal  to  two  hundred  and  seventeen  carloads. 

One  hundred  tons  of  honey,  in  one  lot,  were  shipped  during 
the  same  year,  from  Los  Angeles  to  Europe  on  the  French 


42C  PASTURAGE    AND    OVERSTOCKING. 

bark  Papillon.    This  had  all  been  purchased  from  Los  Angeles 
Apiarists. 

712.  In  the  excellent  season  of  1883,  the  honey  crop  of 
Hancock  County,  Illinois,  was  estimated  at  about  200,000 
pounds,  which  made  an  average  of  less  than  half  a  pound 
per  acre.  36,000  pounds  of  this  was  our  own  crop,  and 
the  county  did  not  contain  one- tenth  of  the  bees  that  could 
have  been  kept  profitably  on  it.  Yet,  at  this  low  rate,  the 
crop  of  Illinois  alone,  with  the  same  percentage  of  bees, 
would  have  been  15,000,000  pounds.  We  cannot  form  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  enormous  amount  of  honey  which  is 
<vasted  from  the  lack  of  bees  to  harvest  it. 

713.  In  our  own  experience  in  the  Mississippi  valley, 
we  have  found  eighty  to  one  hundred  colonies  to  be  the 
number  from  which  the  most  honey  could  be  expected  in 
one  apiary.  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  in  his  interesting  work  "A 
Year  Among  the  Bees,"  says  also  that  one  hundred  colonies 
is  the  best  number  in  one  location.  Mr.  Heddon  strongly 
urges  bee-keepers  not  to  locate  within  any  area  already 
occupied  by  an  apiary  of  one  hundred  colonies  or  more. 
The  extensive  experience  of  both  these  Apiarists  confirms 
ours,  but  we  must  remember  that  locations  differ  gTeatly. 

714.  In  all  arrangements,  aim  to  save  every  step  for  the 
bees  that  you  possibly  can.  With  the  alighting-board  prop- 
erly arranged,  the  grass  kept  down,  or  better  still,  coal-ashes 
or  sand  spread  in  front  of  the  apron-board,  bees  will  be  able 
to  store  more  honey,  even  if  they  have  to  go  a  considerable 
distance  for  it,  than  they  otherwise  could  from  pasturage 
nearer  at  hand.  Manj^  bee-keepers  utterly  neglect  all  suitable 
precautions  to  facilitate  the  labors  of  their  bees,  as  though 
they  imagined  them  to  be  miniature  locomotives,  always  fired 
up,  and  capable  of  an  indefinite  amount  of  exertion.  A  bee 
cannot  put  forth  more  than  a  certain  amount  of  physical 
effort,  and  a  large  portion  of  this  ought  not  to  be  spent  in  con- 
tending against  difficulties  from  which  it  might  easily  be 
guarded.     They  may  often  be  seen  panting  after  their  return 


PASTURAGE.  427 

from  labor,  and  so  exhausted  as  to  need  rest  before  they 
enter  the  hive. 

715.  With  proper  management,  at  least  fifty  pomids  of 
surplus  honey  may  be  obtained  from  each  colony  that  is 
wintered  in  good  condition.  This  is  not  a  "guess"  estimate, 
it  is  the  average  of  our  crops  during  a  period  of  over  twenty 
years  in  different  localities. 

Such  an  average  may  appear  small  to  experienced  bee- 
keepers, but  we  think  it  large  enough  when  we  consider  that 
we  are  in  a  district  where  wheat,  com,  oats,  and  timothy  are 
the  staple  crojDS,  none  of  these  being  honey  producing  plants. 

A  careful  man,  who,  with  Langstroth  hives,  will  begin  bee- 
keeping on  a  prudent  scale,  enlarging  his  operations  as  his 
skill  and  experience  increase,  will  succeed  in  any  region.  But. 
in  favorable  localities,  a  much  larger  profit  may  be  realized. 

Bee-keepers  cannot  be  too  cautious  in  entermg  largely 
upon  new  systems  of  management,  until  they  have  ascertained, 
not  only  that  they  are  good,  but  that  they  can  make  a  good 
use  of  them.  There  is,  however,  a  golden  mean  between  the 
stupid  conser^'atism  that  tries  nothing  new,  and  that  rash 
experimenting,  on  an  extravagant  scale,  which  is  so  char- 
acteristic of  our  people. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
Honey  Production. 

716.  History  does  not  mention  the  first  discovery  of  honey, 
by  human  beings.  Whether  it  became  known  to  primitive 
man  by  accident,  from  the  splitting  of  a  bee-tree  by  lightning, 
or  by  his  observation  of  the  fondness  of  some  animals  for  it,— 
certain  it  is  that  when  he  first  tasted  the  thick  and  transparent 
liquid,  the  fear  of  stings  was  overcome,  and  the  bee-hunter 
was  born.  Since  that  time,  the  manner  of  securing  honey  has 
undergone  a  great  many  changes,  improving  and  retrograding, 
as  we  can  judge  from  writings  now  extant. 

Killing  bees  for  their  honey  was,  unquestionably,  an  in- 
vention of  the  dark  ages,  when  the  human  family  had  lost— 
in  apiarian  pursuits,  as  well  as  in  other  things— the  skill  of 
former  ages.  In  the  times  of  Aristotle,  Varro,  Columella, 
and  Pliny,  such  a  barbarous  practice  did  not  exist.  The  old 
cultivators  took  only  what  their  bees  could  spare,  killing  no 
colonies,  except  such  as  were  feeble  or  diseased. 

The  Modern  methods  have  again  done  away  with  these 
customs  among  enlightened  men,  and  the  time  has  come  when 
the  following  epitaph,  taken  from  a  German  work,  might 
properly  be  placed  over  evei-^^  pit  of  brimstrned  bees: 

HERE  RESTS^ 

CUT  OFF  FROM  USEFUL  LABOR, 

A  COLONY  OF 

INDUSTRIOUS     BEES 

BASELY    MURDERED 

BY    ITS 

UNGRATEFUL   AND    IGNORANT 

OWNER. 

428 


HONEY  PRODUCTION.  429 

To  the  epitaph  should  be  appended  Thomson's  verses: 

'*Ah,  see,  where  robbed  and  murdered  in  that  pit, 
Lies  the  still  heaving  hive!  at  evening  snatched, 
<  Beneath  the   cloud  of  gilt-concealing  night, 
And  fixed  o'er  sulphur!  while,  not  dreaming  ill. 
The  happy  people,  in  their  waxen  cells. 
Sat  tending  public  cares. 
Sudden,  the  dark,  oppressive  steam  ascends. 
And,  used  to  milder  scents,  the  tender  race. 
By  thousands,  tumble  from  their  honied  dome 
Into  a  gulf  of  blue  sulphureous  flame!" 

717.  The  present  methods  are  as  far  ahead  of  the  old 
ways,  as  the  steel  rail  is  ahead  of  the  miiy  road;  as  the 
palace  car  is  ahead  of  the  stage  coach. 

It  is  to  the  production  of  surplus  honey  that  all  the  efforts 
of  the  bee-keeper  tend,  and  the  problem  of  apiculture  is, 
how  to  raise  the  most  honey  from  what  colonies  we  have, 
with  the  greatest  profit. 

718.  In  raising  honey,  whether  comb  or  extracted,  the 
Apiarist  should  remember  the  following: 

1st.  His  colonies  should  be  strongest  in  bees  at  the  time 
of  the  expected  honey  harvest  (565). 

2d.     Each  honey  harvest  usually  lasts  but  a  few  weeks. 

If  a  colony  is  weak  in  Spring,  the  harvest  may  come  and 
pass  away,  and  the  bees  be  able  to  obtain  veiy  little  from  it. 
During  this  time  of  meagre  accumulations,  the  orchards  and 
pastures  may  present 

* '  One   boundless   blush,   one  white   empurpled  shower 
Of  mingled  blossoms;" 

and  tens  of  thousands  of  bees  from  stronger  colonies  may 
be  engaged  all  day  in  sipping  the  fragrant  sweets,  so  that 
every  gale  w^hich  "fans  its  odoriferous  wings'^  about  their 
dwellings,  dispenses 


430  HONEY    PHODUCTION. 

"Native  perfumes,  and  whispers  whence  they  stole 
Those  balmy  spoils."* 

By  the  time  the  feeble  colony  becomes  strong— if  at  all— 
the  honey  harvest  is  over,  and,  instead  of  gathering:  enough 
for  its  own  use,  it  may  starve,  unless  fed.  Bee-keeping,  with 
colonies  which  are  feeble,  except  in  extraordinary  seasons  and 
locations,  is  emphatically  notliing  but  "vexation  of  spirit." 

3rd.  Colonies  that  swarm  cannot  be  expected  to  furnish 
much  surplus,  in  average  localities  and  seasons, 

■ith.  A  hive  containing  or  raising  many  drones  (189) 
cannot  save  as  much  surplus  as  one  that  has  but  few,  owing 
to  the  cost  of  production  of  these  drones,  who  do  not  work 
and  are  raised  in  place  of  workers.  We  have  insisted  on 
this  point  already,  but  it  is  of  such  importance,  that  we 
cannot  refrain  from  recalling  it.  The  hives  should  be  over- 
hauled every  Spring,  and  the  drone  comb  cut  out  and  re- 
placed by  neat  pieces  of  worker  comb,  or  of  comb  foundation 
(674).  Every  square  foot  of  drone  comb,  replaced  with 
worker  comb,  represents  an  annual  saving,  in  our  estimation, 
of  at  least  one  dollar  to  the  colony. 

Comb  Honey. 


719.  Although  more  extracted  honey  can  be  produced 
than  comb  honey,  from  the  same  number  of  colonies,  yet  a 
newly  made  and  well  sealed  comb  of  honey  is  unquestionably 
most  attractive,  and,  when  nicely  put  up,  will  find  a  place 
of  honor,  even  on  the  tables  of  the  wealthy.  White  comb 
honey  will  always  be  a  fancy  article,  and  will  sell  at  paying 
prices. 

Dark  honey  in  the  comb  does  not  usually  find  ready  sale. 
Hence,  the  bee-keepers,  in  districts  where  white  honey  is  har- 

*  The  scent  of  the  hives,  during  the  height  of  the  gathering  season, 
usually  indicates  from  what  sources  the  bees  have  gathered  their  sup- 
plies. 


COMB   HONEY. 


431 


vested,  are  mostly  producers  of  comb  honey ;  while  those  in 
the  districts  producing  dark  honey,  in  the  South  mainly,  rely 
more  on  extracted  honey. 

720.  We  have  noi  the  space  to  describe  the  different 
evolutions,  through  which  the  production  of  comb  honey  has 
passed  since  box-hive  times;  production  in  large  frames  in 
glass  boxes,  in  tumblers,  etc. 


Fig.    186. 

ONE-PIECE    SECTIONS. 


Honey  in  large  frames  does  not  sell  well,  and  cannot  be 
safely  transported.  "Were  it  not  for  this,  its  production  in 
this  way  wouM  be  advisable.  The  experienced  bee-keeper 
well  knows  that  bees  will  make  more  honey  in  a  large  box, 
than  in  several  small  ones  whose  miited  capacity  is  the  same. 
In  small  boxes,  thev  cannot  so  well  maintain  their  animal  heat 


432 


HONEY    PRODUCTION. 


in  cool  weather  and  cannot  ventilate  so  readily  in  hot  weather. 
In  the  exceedingly  hot  season  of  1878,  the  colonies  that  were 
provided  with  glass  boxes  yielded  on  an  average,  less  than 
one-fourth  of  the  average  yielded  by  others. 

The  bees  have  another  important  and  natural  objection  to 
the  small  receptacles,  mentioned  by  a  noted  Apiarist,  as  will 
be  seen  farther  (741).  Practically,  there  is  more  labo^'  for 
the  bees  in  small  receptacles,  as  the  joints  and  corners  of  the 
combs  require  more  time  and  more  wax. 

721.     But    to    produce    salable    comb    honey,    we   have    no 


Fig.  187. 

FOLDED    SECTIONS. 


choice.  We  must  produce  it  in  a  small  receptacle.  The  Adair 
section  boxes,  which  we  used  as  early  as  1868,  marked  the 
first  progressive  step,  so  far  as  we  know. 

These  sections  forming  a  case  by  the  overlapping  of  their 
top  and  bottom  bars,  and  furnished  with  glass  at  each  end. 
were  much  admired,  and  w^e  sold  several  tons  of  honey,  in 
this  shape,  in  St.  Louis,  at  the  now  fabulous  prices  of  from 
25  to  28  cents  per  pound. 

722.  But  the  one  pound  sections,  as  now  made,  have  been 
universally  adopted  of  late  years. 


COilB    HONEY.  433 

These  sections  are  made  of  two  kinds,  dovetailed  in  four 
pieces,  or  in  one  piece  and  folded.  The  first  can  be  made  of 
any  kind  of  white  wood,  while  the  latter  are  made  of  bass- 
wood  only. 

723.  Sections  are  usually  made  Vs  inch  thick  and  IVo  to 
2  inches  wide.  The  standard  section  for  Langstroth  hives  is 
41/4x414  inches,  with  openings  at  the  bottom  and  top. 

724.  They  are  given  to  the  bees  in  the  upper  stoiy.    Stor- 


Fig.  ISS. 

SUPER  WITH  PATTERN  SLATS. 


age  room,  on  the  sides  of  the  brood  chamber,  has  been  periodi- 
cally advised  by  inventors  of  new  hives,  but  bees  never  fill 
and  seal  sections  placed  at  the  side  as  fast  as  if  put  above 
the  brood  chamber. 

Sections  are  placed  on  the  hive  in  supers  with  pattern  slats 
on  which  the  sections  rest  as  in  fig.  188,  in  T  supers  with 
metal  rests,  fig.  201,  or  in  wide  frames,  figs  189  and  199. 

With  either  of  these  methods,  some  principles  must  be  ad- 
hered to. 


434 


HONEY    PRODUCTION. 


725.  These  principles  are  based  on  the  difficulties,  that 
ha\^  to  be  overcome  in  comb-honey  production,  as  follows* 

1st.     Inducing  the  bees  to  work  in  small  receptacles; 

2d.  Forcing  them  to  build  the  combs  straight  and  even, 
without  bulge,  so  that  the  sections  can  be  interchanged  with- 
out being  bruised  against  one  another,  when  taken  off  and 
crated  for  market; 

3d.  Keepmg  the  queen  in  the  brood  apartment,  and  pre- 
venting her  from  breeding  in  the  sections; 

4th.     Preventing  swarming  as  much  as  possible; 

oth.  Arranging  the  sections  so  as  to  have  as  little  propolis 
put  on  them  as  possible  (237) ; 

6th.  Getting  the  greatest  number  of  sections  thoroughly 
sealed,  as  unsealed  honey  is  unsalable. 


Fig.   189. 

FULL  DEPTH  SECTION  FRAME. 

(From  "Bees  and  Honey.") 


•726.     1st.  Inducing  bees  to  work  in  small  receptacles. 

Rather  than  work  in  small,  empty  receptacles,  the  bees 
sometimes  crowd  their  honey  in  the  brood  chamber,  till  the 
queen  can  find  no  room  to  lay  in,  and  swarming,  or  a  smaller 
crop  of  honey,  is  the  consequence.  To  remedy  this  evil,  some 
of  our  leading  bee-keepers  have  resorted  to  an  old,  discarded, 
French  practice,  "reversing."  Reversing  consists  in  turning 
the  brood  chamber  upside  down  and  placing  hives  containing 
empty  combs,  whose  bees  died  the  preceding  Winter,  or  empty 


COMB   HONEY. 


435 


supers,  over  it.  The  honey  contained  in  the  brood  chambei:, 
.which  is  always  placed  above  and  be- 
hind the  brood,  safe  from  pilfering  in- 
truders, is  now  at  the  bottom,  near  the 
entrance.  The  cells  are  wrong  side  up 
(fig.  190),  and  the  most  wateiy  honey 
is  in  danger  of  leakmg  out.  Hence 
an  uproar  in  the  hive,  and  the  imme- 
diate result  is,  that  the  bees  promptly 
occupy  the  upper  story,  and  store  in  it 
all  this  ill-situated  honey.  The  result 
is  so  radical,  that  "reversing  bee-keep- 
ers" admit  that  their  bees  have  to  be 
fed  in  the  Fall,  as  too  little  honey  is 
left  in  the  brood  chamber  for  the  hives 
to  winter  on.  In  the  box-hive  times, 
the  following  was  already  the  almost 
unanimous  report  of  bee-keepers  on 
the  results  of  "reversing.''  Tlie  re- 
cruiting and  feeding  for  Winter  of 
reversed  colonies  being  considered  too  costly  and  risky,  the 
apiaries  were  supplied  every  year  with  new  colonies  bought 
from  bee-keepers  whose  business  was  to  raise  swarms  to  sell. 

**If  you  want  the  greatest  quantity  of  honey,  reverse  your 
colonies;  but  if  reversing  was  practiced  everywhere,  we  would 
diminish  the  number  of  our  colonies,  and  would  finally  even 
destroy  the  race  of  bees,  for  as  far  as  bee  reproduction  is  con- 
cerned the  'reversing  Apiarist'  reaches  the  same  result  as  the 
'brimstoning  Apiarist.'  " — French  Apiarian  Congress,  Paris 
1861.     L 'Apiculteur,  Volume,  6,  page  175. 

In  the  present  state  of  progress  in  bee  culture,  "reversing" 
is  less  damagmg,  but  its  disadvantages  to  the  bees  cannot  over- 
balance its  advantages,  unless  it  is  practiced  very  cautiously 
and  sparingly. 

727.  Yet  this  practice  is  sufficiently  enticing— as  it  forces 
the  bees  to  occupy  the  supers  so  quickly— to  have  caused  the 


Fig.   190. 

SLOPE    OF    THE   CELLS 
WHEN   INVERTED. 


43G 


HONEY    PRODUCTION, 


invention  of  a  number  of  reversible  hives  or  frames.  The  re- 
versing method  caused  quite  a  craze  about  18S8,  but  it  was  a 
*^fad"  svhich  soon  wore  itself  out. 


Fig.    191. 

HEDDON'S    REVERSIBLE    HIVE. 

(From   Cheshire.) 
St,   stand:    bb,   body;    hb,  honey  board;    sr,  section   racks;   c,  cover: 
hh,  hand  holds  ;   lb,  entrance  blocks ;  e,   entrance  ;   I,  cleat  to   give  bee 
space  ;  .s,  screws  to  hold  frames. 

728.     Reversing   during   the   harvest   does   not   cause   the 
bees  to  gather  any  more  honey;  nay,  they  harvest  even  a  little 


COMB    HOXEY.  437 

less,  owing  to  the  time  occupied  iii  transportiug  the  honey, 
but  it  is  all  placed  in  the  surplus  apartment  at  the  mercy  of 
their  owner. 

A  much  safer  method  to  induce  the  bees  to  work  in  the 
supers,  is  to  place  in  them,  nearest  the  brood,  a  few  imfinished 
sections  from  the  previous  season.  This  is  what  Dr.  C.  C. 
Miller  calls  a  "bait."  These  unfinished  sections  have  been 
emptied  of  their  honey  by  the  extractor,,  and  cleaned  by  the 
bees  the  previous  Fall.  The  supers  should  be  located  as  near 
the  brood  apartment  as  possible,  with  as  much  direct  com- 
munication as  can  be  conveniently  given. 

729.  But,  with  the  greatest  skill,  it  is  impossible  to  attract 
the  bees  into  the  supers,  as  long  as  there  are  empty  combs  in 
the  brood-chamber. 

If  the  queen  is  unable  to  occupy  all  the  combs  with  brood, 
the  empty  ones  should  be  removed  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey 
harvest,  and  either  given  to  swarms  or  divided  colonies,  or 
placed  outside  of  the  division  board  (34^9).  This  is  called 
''contraction."  We  would  warn  our  readers  against  excessive 
contraction,  for,  after  the  honey  season  is  over,  a  hive  which 
has  been  contracted  to,  say,  two-thirds,  of  its  capacity,  has 
become  dwarfed  in  honey,  brood,  and  bees,  and  will  run  some 
risks  through  the  Winter.  Besides,  that  part  of  the  super, 
which  is  above  the  empty  space,  is  but  rehictantly  occupied  bj' 
bees. 

**If  the  reader  has  ever  constructed  a  hive,  whose  surplus 
department  was  wider  than  the  brood  chamber,  jutting  out  over 
the  same,  he  has  noticed  the  partial  neglect  paid  by  the  bees,  to 
the   surplus  toxes  which  rested  over  wood  instead  of  combs. 

' '  Now  this  same  difference  made  by  the  bees,  between  wood 
and  comb,  they  will  also  make  between  combs  of  honey  and 
combs  of  brood,  and  with  our  8-frame  Langstroth  hive,  we 
notice  far  less  neglect  of  the  side  surplus  combs  than  we  noticed 
when  using  the  10-frame  hives.  This  is  one  objection  to  the 
method  of  contracting  by  replacing  the  side  combs  of  brood 
chambers  with  fillers  or  dummies." — J.  Heddon  "Success  in 
Bee-Culture. ' ' 


438  HONEY   PRODUCTION. 

730.  A  method  which  avoids  contraction,  and  makes  the 
best  honey-producing  colonies  still  better,  consists  in  taking 
brood  combs  from  colonies  that  are  not  likely  to  yield  any 
surplus,  and  exchanging  them,  for  empty  combs  from  the  best 
colonies,  just  before  the  honey  harvest.  This  method  requires 
too  many  manipulations  to  be  very  advantai;eous,  and  pre- 
vents the  poorest  colonies  from  becoming  stronger. 

The  most  potent  argument  that  has  been  advanced  against 
the  Dadant  large  hive  is  that,  in  the  raising  of  comb  honey, 
it  becomes  necessaiy  to  remove  all  the  combs  that  may  not 
have  been  filled  with  brood,  by  queens  of  inferior  prolificness. 
This  contraction  is  necessaiy  if  we  want  all  our  honey  in  the 
sections.  But  many  bee-keepers  like  to  produce  both  comb 
and  extracted  honey  and  with  this  hive  they  secure  both.  The 
eight-frame  Langstroth  hive,  on  account  of  its  diminutive  size 
has  been  preferred  by  many,  because  just  as  soon  as  there  is  a 
surplus  the  bees  are  compelled  to  put  it  into  the  sections,  so 
that  the  Apiarist  gets  more  honey,  in  a  poor  season,  from 
small  hives  than  from  large  ones,  but  if  he  were  to  weigh  the 
amount  of  honey  actually  harvested,  whether  in  the  body  or 
the  supers,  he  would  soon  ascertain  that  the  large  hives  aver- 
aged a  great  deal  more  crop,  owing  to  the  greater  population 
in  hives  containing  veiy  prolific  queens.  We  mention  this  be- 
cause the  ten-frame  Langstroth  hives  are  usually  preferred  for 
the  production  of  comb  honey. 

We  have  already  stated  (312),  how  Doctor  C.  C.  Miller, 
with  eight-frame  hives,  manages  to  secure  the  greatest  amount 
of  brood  before  the  opening  of  the  honey  crop,  by  adding 
another  story  for  brood  to  his  strongest  colonies,  then  reducing 
them  at  the  opening  of  the  crop,  to  one  stoiy  full  of  brood, 
using  the  extra  brood  combs  for  weaker  colonies.  To  this 
method  Dr.  Miller  ascribes  his  constant  success.  It  is  only 
another  method  of  achieving  the  same  end,  securing  the  great- 
est amount  of  brood  and  contracting  the  brood  nest  for  the 
honey  crop.  By  our  method  it  is  done  with  only  one  brood 
apartment.     The  bee-keeper  who  uses  small  hives  must  either 


Plate  25. 


DR.  C.  C.  MILLER, 

Author  of  "A  Year  Among  the  Bees"  ''Forty  Years  Among  the 
Bees,''  and  ''Fifty  Years  Among  the  Bees.'' 

This  writer   is  mentioned  pages    46,    156,   167,   175,   194,   195,   226,    241, 

283,  287,  333,  362,  381,  393,  426,  437,   442,  443,  444, 

445,  446,  449,  463,  464,  546. 


COMB   HONEY. 


4.39 


take  one  of  these  methods  or  expect  less  crop  than  he  would 
othel'^vise  get  from  the  most  prolific  queens. 

731.  2d.  Securing  straight^  even  combs,  in  sections. 
With  thin  comb  foimdation  (683),  in  strips  filling  ^2  to  % 
of  the  section,  the  combs  are  always  straight,  but  their  surface, 
when  sealed,  is  not  always  even.  Some  cells  are  built  longer 
than  others,  and,  m  packing  the  honey,  these  bulged  combs 
might  come  in  contact  with  one  another  and  get  bruised.  To 
prevent  this  occurrence,  many  Apiarists  use  "separators,"  made 
of  tin,  wood,  or  coarse  wire  cloth,  placed  between  the  rows  of 
sections,  as  in  figs.  ISO  and  192.     This  invention,  claimed  by 


Fig.  192. 

SECTION  SUPER  WITH  WOOD  SEPARATORS. 


Mr.  Betsinger,  of  New  York,  was  first  tried  in  the  brood 
chamber,  by  Mr.  Langstroth  in  1858.  It  was  suggested  by  Mr. 
Colvin.     (See  foiTner  edition,  page  374.) 

Another  method  has  been  devised.  Plain  sections,  without 
insets  for  the  passage  of  the  bees,  are  made,  and  a  "fence" 
is  used  between  the  sections.  This  fence  is  made  of  slats,  fig. 
193,  with  upright  strips  which  rest  perpendicularly  against 
the  edge  of  the  sections.  The  bee  space  is  thus  made  by  the 
help  of  the  fence,  the  entire  length  of  the  sections  at  top  and 
bottom.     Either  method  succeeds  in  securing  straight  combs, 


440 


HONEY    PRODUCTION. 


though  the  results  ditfer  somewhat,  as  will  be  seen  farther 
(736). 

But  many  bee-keepers  succeed  in  securing  straight  combs 
without  separators  simply  by  the  use  of  full  sheets  of  comb 
foundation  in  the  sections. 

732.  3d.  Keeping  the  queen  in  the  brood  apartment. 
If  the  supers  have  been  put  on  just  previous  to  the  opening 
of  the  honey  crop,  with  sufficient  bait  to  attract  the  bees  in 
them,  there  will  be  but  litle  danger  of  the  queen's  moving  up 


Fig.   193. 

SECTION  SUPER  WITH  FENCES. 


into  them,  unless  her  breeding  room  is  too  much  cramped  by 
honey,  or  by  the  exiguity  of  the  brood  nest. 

The  condition  of  the  honey  crop  has  something  to  do  with 
her  propensity  to  move  out  of  the  brood  apartment.  When 
the  honey  crop  is  heavy,  and  of  short  duration,  there  is  no 
danger  on  this  score,  as  the  honey  combs  are  filled  as  fast  as 
they  are  built,  and  the  queen,  should  she  move  to  the  super, 
would  soon  leave  it,  owing  to  her  inability  to  lay  there.  In 
localities  where  the  crop  is  lasting  and  intermittent,  much 
advantage  has  been  derived  from  the  use  of  the  Collin  per- 
forated zinc  between  the  brood  chamber  and  the  supers.     The 


COMB   HONEY. 


441 


only  obstacle  to  its  use,  is  that  it  hinders  ventilation  and  free 
access  for  the  bees. 

The  slatted  honey  board  with  zinc  strips  between  the  slats 
is  probab]}'  the  best  queen  excluder  made.     The  full  zinc  sheet 


Fig.  194. 

WOOD-BOUND   ZINC. 


Fig.  195. 

UNBOUND    ZINC. 


is  more  apt  to  get  out  of  sliape  by  being  glued  up  by  the 
bees  when  propolis  is  plentiful. 

The  greater  or  less  necessity  of  queen  excluders  to  prevent 


Fig.   196. 

SLATTED    WOOD-ZINC    HONEY    BOARD. 


the  queen  from  ascending  into  the  sections  and  filling  them 
with  broodj  seems  to  depend  much  on  location.  We  have 
never  found  that  queen  excluders  were  sufficiently  needed  to 


442  HONEY    PRODUCTION. 

make  them  desirable,  but  uiaiiy  other  bee-keepers  have  often 
asserted  that  they  cannot  get  along  without  them.  However, 
such  an  authority  as  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  says:  "The  queen  so 
seldom  goes  into  a  super  that  not  one  section  in  a  hundred, 
some  times  not  more  than  one  in  a  thousand,  will  be  found 
troubled  with  brood."  Other  writers  are  equally  emphatic  in 
favor  of  the  excluder.  So  each  bee-keeper  will  have  to  decide 
this  point  for  himself. 

According  to  Doctor  Miller,  the  queen  rarely  goes  into  the 
supers  except  to  seek  drone  cells  in  which  to  lay,  when  she 
becomes  tired  of  worker  cells.  At  such  times,  the  bees  seem 
to  understand  her  wishes  so  well  that  they  leave  drone  cells 
unoccupied  in  order  to  give  her  an  opportunity  to  lay  in  them. 
If  at  such  times  she  finds  drone  comb  in  the  sections  she  will 
be  likely  to  fill  it  with  eggs.  Otherwise  her  laying  in  sections 
will  be  very  rare. 

733.  4th.  Swarming  with  comb-honey  production.  As 
the  directions  given  by  us  elsewhere  (461)  do  not  altogether 
prevent  swarming,  when  comb-honey  is  raised,  and  as  the 
swarming  of  a  colony  usually  ends  its  surplus  production  for 
the  seasouj  it  has  been  found  advisable  to  give  the  surplus 
cases  to  the  swarm,  instead  of  leaving  them  on  the  old  hive. 
(468  his.)  To  further  strengthen  the  swarm,  which  is  thus 
depended  upon  for  surplus,  it  is  placed  on  the  stand  of  the 
old  hive,  and  the  latter  is  removed  to  a  new  location.  This  is 
a  very  practical  method.  It  is  due  to  Messrs.  Heddon  and 
Hutchinson-— at  least  they  have  popularized  it.  But  the  pru- 
dent Apiarist,  who  follows  this  course,  will  keep  a  vigilant 
eye  on  the  old  colony,  thus  deprived  of  all  its  working  force, 
and  will  help  it,  if  needed. 

734.  5th.  Preventing  the  bees  from  propolizing. 

* '  Propolis  on  sections  is  a  nuisance,  be  the  same  little  or 
much,  and  a  plan  which  will  allow  of  the  filling  of  the  section 
with  nice  comb  honey  without  changing  the  clean  appearance 
which  they  present  when  placed  upon  the  hive,  will  be  her- 
alded  with    delight  by   all,   and   give   great   honor  to   him   who 


COMB    HONEY.  443 

works    out    the    plan. ' ' — G.    M.    Doolittle,    *  *  Gleanings, ' '    page 
171.     1886. 

We  have  shown  (238)  that  bees  propolize  eveiy  crack,  and 
daub  with  this  yellowish  or  bro"wnish  glue  every  thing  inside 
of  their  hive.  This  is  very  hard  to  clean,  and  it  can  never 
be  removed  sufficiently  to  restore  to  the  sections  their  original 
whiteness. 

**A11  four  sides  of  the  sections  are  scraped  clean  of  propolis, 
and  the  edges  as  well.  It  is  not  a  difficult  job  for  a  careful 
hand,  but  a  very  disagreeable  one.  The  fine  dust  of  the  bee- 
glue  is  very  unpleasant  to  breathe.  A  scraper  should  be  a 
careful  person,  or  in  ten  minutes'  time  he  will  do  more  dam- 
age than  his  day's  work  is  worth.  Even  a  careful  person  seems 
to  need  to  spoil  at  least  one  section,  before  taking  the  care 
necessary  to  avoid  injuring  others.  But  when  the  knife  makes 
an  ugly  gash  in  the  face  of  a  beautiful  white  section  of  honey, 
that  settles  it  that  care  will  be  taken  afterward. ' ' — Dr.  C.  C. 
Miller:     *'A  Year  Among  the  Bees." 

To  prevent  propolizing,  the  sections  should  be  fitted  tightly 
together,  and  as  little  of  their  outside  as  possible  exposed  to 
the  bees.  The  honey  should  be  removed  promptly,  when 
sealed,  before  the  bees  have  time  to  do  much  glumg. 

Xot  only  is  it  necessary  that  the  sections  should  be  removed 
early  after  they  are  filled,  on  account  of  the  propolis  brought  bj' 
the  bees,  but  it  is  also  useful  to  remove  the  other  contrivances 
employed,  such  as  excluding  honey -boards,  separators  or  fences, 
so  they  may  not  be  so  daubed  with  the  sticky  substance  as  to 
become  useless.  Besides,  in  the  present  condition  of  progres- 
sive bee-culture  and  close  competition,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
honey  which  does  not  show  any  travel  stains  from  the  bees 
and  the  whitest  honey  is  often  soiled  in  appearance  by  the 
travel  of  the  bees  over  it.  An  experienced  eye  will  easily  de- 
tect combs  which  have  been  left  on  the  hive  too  long  and  have 
become  travel-stained. 

735.  6th.  Securing  sealed  comb  honey.  For  this  pur- 
pose no  more  cases  should  be  given  than  the  bees  are  likely 


444  HONEY   PRODUCTION. 

to  fill.  The  second  case  should  not  be  added  until  the  fii*st 
is  half  filled.  The  outside  sections,  being  tlie  last  filled,  may 
not  be  sealed  at  all,  unless  the  bees  are  somewhat  crowded  for 
room.  To  remedy  this,  many  bee-keepers  are  in  the  habit  of 
"tiering  out/'  instead  of  ''tiering  up;"  that  is,  they  put  the 
empty  or  mifinished  sections  in  the  middle  of  the  super,  re- 
moving all  that  are  filled,  or  placing  them  on  the  outside.  This 
is  an  increase  of  labor,  but  some  hold  that  it  pays. 

There  is  quite  a  difference  in  localities  and  seasons,  as  to  the 
time  of  adding  supers.  Much  depends  on  the  yield  of  honey. 
Each  Apiarist  must  judge  of  the  probabilities,  not  only  of 
ordinaiy  seasons,  but  of  extraordinaiy  seasons  as  Avell  and  this 
knowledge  can  be  gained  only  by  j^ractice.  To  show  what 
may  be  expected  in  a  good  location,  we  will  quote  a  passage 
from  Dr.  Miller's  "Forty  Years  Among  the  Bees" : 

''On  the  whole,  there  is  a  mixture  of  judgment  and  guess- 
work as  to  putting  on  supers  after  the  first.  Perhaps  the  near- 
est to  a  general  rule  in  the  matter  is  to  give  a  second  super 
when  the  first  is  half  filled.  If,  however,  honey  seems  to  be 
coming  in  slowly,  or  if  the  colony  is  not  strong,  and  the  bees 
seem  to  have  plenty  of  room  in  the  super,  no  second  super  is 
given,  although  the  one  already  there  may  be  filled  with  honey. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  honey  seems  to  be  coming  with  a  rush, 
and  the  bees  seem  crowded  for  room,  a  second  super  may  be 
given,  although  there  is  very  little  honey  in  the  first.  These 
same  conditions  continued,  a  third  super  may  be  given  when 
the  second  is  only  fairly  started  and  the  first  not  half  full, 
and  before  the  first  super  is  ready  to  take  off  there  may  be 
four  or  five  supers  on  the  hive.  In  the  year  1897 — a  remark- 
ably prosperous  year — there  were  at  one  time  in  the  Wilson 
apiary  an  average  of  four  supers  to  each  colony,  some  colonies 
with  less  than  four  and  some  with  more,  and  not  a  finished 
super  in  the  lot.  The  supers  were  all  well  filled  with  bees,  and 
although  I  took  some  chances  as  to  unfinished  work,  I  feel 
pretty  sure  that  if  I  had  allowed  less  room  it  would  have 
been  at  a  loss.    But  that  was  a  very  exceptional  case." 

Instead  of  removing  the  filled  sections  from  the  center  of 


COMB   HONEY.  445 

the  super  as  by  the  method  above  mentioned,  Dr.  Miller  re- 
moves the  entire  super  when  nearly  filled,  without  waiting  for 
the  outside  sections  to  be  sealed^  and  the  unfinished  sections 
of  several  supers  are  put  together  and  given  back  to  some 
strong  colony  to  be  finished  by  them.  This  avoids  much 
handling  of  sections  on  the  hive. 


Fig.  197. 

UNFINISHED   SECTIONS   THAT   ARE   NOT   MARKETABLE. 

(Forty  Years  Among  the  Bees.) 

736.  It  often  happens  that  the  bees  fasten  the  comb  only 
at  the  top  of  the  section.  For  safe  transportation  it  is  very 
important  that  it  should  be  fastened  to  the  section  wall,  all 
around.  To  secure  this,  not  only  do  Apiarists  use  comb  foun- 
dation, but  some  have  devised  '^reversible"  section  cases.  When 
the  sections  are  turned  over,  the  empty  space  now  at  the  top, 
seems  unnatural  to  tlie  bees,  and  they  hasten  to  fill  it,  making 
a  solid  comb  in  the  section.     But  this  is  not  the  onty  method. 

' '  Years  ago  my  sections  were  always  filled  so  full  by  the  bees, 
that  they  carried  very  securely  in  transportation.  Afterwards  I 


446 


HONEY    PRODUCTIOX. 


began  to  have  trouble  from  combs  breaking  down.  It  was  due, 
perhaps,  mainly  to  the  bees  having  too  much  surplus  room. 
Some  sections  would  be  filled  with  a  nice  comb  of  honey,  not 
\ery  strongly  attached  at  the  top,  very  little  at  the  side,  and 
not  at  all  at  the  bottom.  Aside  from  depending  upon  crowd- 
ing the  bees  to  make  them  fill  the  sections,  I  wanted  a  plan 
whereby  I  could  be  sure  of  having  the  sections  fastened  at  the 
bottom  as  well  as  at  the  top.  I  tried  to  take  partly  filled 
sections  out  of  the  supers  and  reversing  them,  and  went  so  far 
as  to  invent  a  reversible  super.  I  abandoned  this,  however, 
and  adopted  the  plan  of  putting  a  starter  in  the  bottom  as  well 
as  at  the  top  of  the  section. '^     (''A  Year  Among  the  Bees.") 


1 

I^HHp''                                                                                                                .'1 

Fig.   19S. 

TOP    AND   BOTTOM    STARTERS. 

(Forty  Years  Among  the  Bees.) 


Between  the  publicatiuii  of  ^'A  Year  Among-  the  Bees,"  and 
that  of  "Forty  Years  Anionj?  the  Bees,"  both  by  the  same 
author,  Doctor  C.  C.  Miller  had  seventeen  years  of  practice 
of  comb  honey  production,  on  a  very  large  scale  and  with 
extraordinary  results.  The  reader  will  readily  agree  with  us 
that  his  opinion   has  great  value.     He  insists  that  top   and 


COMB    HOXET. 


44? 


bottom  starters  as  per  Fig.  198  give  tJie  best  results,  the  bot- 
tom starter  being  five-eighths  of  an  inch  wide,  with  a  space 
of  onl}'  a  quarter  inch  between  the  two.  This  allows  of  the 
slight  stretching  usual  in  comb  foundation. 

737.  It  is  held  by  some  Apiarists  that  the  fence  with  plain 
sections,  fig.  193,  secures  better  filled  combs  than  the  ordinaiy 
section  with  insets  and  separators,  fig.  188.  But  when  the  bees 
are  supplied  with  foundation  in  full  or  nearly  full  sheets,  the 
advantage   seems   to   be   on   the   side   of   the  separator.      The 


Fig.  199. 

WIDP    FKAME^    HALF   FILLFD. 

(Forty  Years  Among:  the  Bees.) 


fullest  sections  that  the  writer  has  seen  were  secured  by  split- 
ting the  sections  exactly  through  the  center  and  placing  the 
sheet  of  foundation  so  that  it  was  caught  between  the  two 
halves  of  the  section  and  fastened  all  around.  This  is  the 
Lnglish  method. 

Miss  Emma  Wilson,  Doctor  Miller's  able  sister-in-law,  who 
has  for  many  years  managed  a  large  number  of  colonies  for 
comb  honey  says : 


448 


HONEY   PRODUCTION. 


"I  can  pick  just  as  well  filled  sections  among  those  that 
have  insets  as  among  the  plain  fence  sections,  and  I  can  find 
as  many  ill-filled  sections  among  the  latter  as  among  the 
former.  But  I  much  prefer  the  sections  with  inset  to  the 
plain,  because  when  handling  them,  I  am  more  likely  to  damage 
the  cappings  of  the  honey  in  the  plain  sections,  and  the  sec- 
tions are  also  more  likely  to  topple  over  while  being  fixed  for 
market/' 

Mr.  Frank  Rauchfuss,  the  Secretaiy  of  the  Colorado  Honey 
Producers,  handling  ten  to  twenty  carloads  of  honey  annually 
for  his  stockholders,  said :     "In  selling  honey  to  our  Eastern 


ENLARGED   VIE* 

Fig.    200. 
SLTER    WITH    SPRINGS. 


trade  we  found  that  they  were  not  so  willing  to  handle  honey 
in  plain  sections  as  in  the  standard  sections." 

We  will  now  consider  a  few  of  the  various  cases  used  in  the 
production  of  comb  honey. 

738.  The  deep  wide  frames  (fig.  199),  have  the  decided 
advantage  of  allowing  the  Apiarist  to  use  sections  in  a  full 
size  upper  stoiy.  In  limited  comb  honey  production,  they  can 
probably  be  used  with  satisfaction,  especially  with  the  eight 
or  ten  frame  Langstroth  hive. 

739.  The  half-storj'  comb  honey  supers,  figs.  200  and  201, 
are  preferable  to  the  full  story  wide  frames.    A  full  story  is 


COMB    HONEY.  449 

often  too  large  for  surplus  and  two  half  stories  will  always 
be  found  more  easily  handled  and  more  evenly  filled,  especially 
if  given  only  when  needed.  Many  styles  are  made,  but  the 
leading  ones  are  with  bottom  and  side  slats  enclosing  the  sec- 
tions and  with  springs  crowding  them  together,  an  improve- 
ment on  the  Oliver  Foster  method  described  in  a  previous  edi- 
tion of  this  work,  fig.  200. 


Fig.  201. 

MILLER    T     SUPER. 

740.  Mr.  C.  C.  Miller  places  his  sections  in  supers  without 
top  or  bottom,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  deeper  than  the  sections. 
To  support  the  sections  in  these  boxes  he  nails,  under  both  ends, 
a  strip  of  tin,  which  projects  one-fourth  inch  inside.  Strips 
of  tiuj  bent  in  the  form  of  a  A.  are  supported  across  the 
box,  by  six  small  pieces  of  sheet  iron  nailed  at  regular  inter- 
vals, under  the  sides  of  the  box.  The  sections  rest  on  these 
T  '*s,  and  on  the  end  strips.  These  supers  holding  28  or  32 
sections,  can  be  piled  upon  one  another,  leaving  a  bee  space 
between  them.  The  only  objection  that  we  have  ever  heard 
offered  to  the  T  super,  as  the  Miller  super  is  called,  is  the 
danger  of  the  bees  propolizing  the  exposed  parts  of  the  sec- 
tion. In  the  supers  which  furnish  slats  for  the  support  of  the 
sections,  there  is  nothing  exposed  but  the  edges  of  a  part  of 
each  section.  Othenvise  the  Miller  plan  seems  to  bring  the 
sections  in  closer  proximity  to  each  other.    But  the  above  men- 


450 


HOXKY    PKODUCTIOK. 


tioned  plans  are  all  good  and  the  Apiarist  is  to  decide  for 
himself  which  suits  his  taste  best. 

741.  There  are  a  few  considerations  worthy  of  notice,  in 
the  raising  of  comb  honey,  which  were  advanced  years  ago, 
by  Oliver  Foster.  We  quote  from  his  pamphlet,  now  out  of 
l>rint : 

' '  There  should  be  free  communication  between  the  sections 
ia  every  direction.  They  should  have  deep  slots  on  all  8  edges 
as  shown  in  Fig.  202  so  that  bees  can  pass  freely  over  the 
combs  from  end  to  end  of  the  case,  as  well  as  from  side  to 
side,  and  from  top  to  bottom." 


(From 


Fig.  202. 

OPEX    SECTIONS. 

How  to  Raise  Comb  Honey.") 


"You  may  not  appreciate  the  importance  of  this  until  you 
have  tried  them. 

*'When  we  take  into  consideration  that  the  object  on  the  part 
of  the  bees,  in  storing  up  honey  in  Summer,  is  to  have  it  ac- 
cessible for  Winter  consumption,  and  that  in  Winter,  the  bees 
collect  in  a  round  ball,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  a  serai-torpid 
state  with  but  little  if  any  motion,  except  that  gradual  moving 
of  bees  from  the  center  to  the  surface  and  from  the  surface 
to  the  center  of  this  ball,  we  may  imagine  how  unwelcome  it 
is  to  them  to  be  obliged  to  divide  their  stores  between  four 
separate  apartments,  each  of  which  is  four  inches  square  and 
twelve  inches  long,  with  no  communication  between  these  apart- 
ments.'* 


EXTRACTED    IIONEV.  451 

742.  Although  Mr.  Foster's  methods  and  iniplenieiits  have 
been  improved  upon  in  the  past  twenty  years,  the  ideas  ex- 
pressed above  are  original  and  correct  and  it  is  necessaiy  that 
we  should  consider  them.  The  improvements  which  go  towards 
a  more  comfortable  situation  for  the  bees  while  working  in 
the  supers  are  sure  to  be  in  the  line  of  progress.  Separators 
are  needed  to  secure  straight  combs  but  the  less  we  will  have 
of  them,  the  better  for  our  success.  The  fence,  the  faults  of 
which  we  have  shown,  is  very  certainly  praised  and  used  be- 
cause it  gives  a  more  thorough  passage  from  one  stoiy  to  an- 
other, since  it  gives  an  opening  along  the  entire  length  of  the 
section. 

743.  For  the  same  reason  of  comfort  to  the  bees  and  also 
for  ease  of  manipulation,  it  is  advisable  to  abstain  from  using 
the  queen  excluder,  if  the  Apiarist  finds  that  he  can  get  along 
without  it.  These  implements  are  in  the  way  for  the  travel 
of  the  bees  over  the  combs,  for  the  ventilation,  and  they  are 
also  much  in  the  way  of  the  Apiarist. 

744.  So  in  accepting  new  improvements,  we  should  at  all 
times  remember  that  simplicity  in  the  implements  makes  for 
greater  success,  not  only  because  it  is  an  economy  of  money, 
but  because  our  bees  will  feel  better,  fare  better  and  swarm 
less  if  not  hampered  with  obstructions. 

745.  All  improvements  that  are  made  must  be  based  on 
a  full  consideration  of  the  histincts  of  the  bees.  Like  Mr. 
Hutchinson  ("Production  of  Comb-Honey"  p.  18),  we  "have 
seen  bees  sulk  for  days  during  a  good  honey  flow,  simply  be- 
cause the  present  condition  of  things  was  not  to  their  liking.'' 
You  should  make  your  bees  feel  as  natural  and  as  much  "at 
home"  as  possible. 

Extracted  Honey. 

746.  To  separate  the  honey  from  the  wax,  the  bee-keepei^s 
of  old  used  to  melt  or  break  the  comb  and  drahi  the  honey  out. 

Beeswax,    as    a    sweet-scented    luminifei'ous    substance,    far 


452  HONEY  PRODUCTION. 

superior  to  oils  or  the  crude  grease  of  animals,  was  greatly 
appreciated  by  the  priests,  and  placed  among  the  best  offerings 
required  to  please  the  gods.  The  custom  of  offering  wax,  or 
wax  candles,  continued  to  this  day  by  some  churches,  especially 
by  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  churches,  caused  for  cen- 
turies the  levy  of  hea\y  taxes,  payable  in  beeswax,  in  coun- 
tries where  the  inhabitants  kept  bees.  Some  comitries,  in 
Europe,  had  to  pay  to  the  church,  eveiy  year,  several  hundred 
thousand  pounds  of  beeswax.  Such  taxes  compelled  the  bee- 
keepers to  separate  the  honey  from  the  wax  with  as  little  waste 
as  possible. 

Different  grades  of  honey  were  harvested  by  the  careful 
Apiarists.  The  light-colored  combs  produced  a  light-colored 
and  pure  honey;  the  combs  which  had  contained  brood  pro- 
duced turbid  honey  of  inferior  quality. 

747.  These  primitive  methods  were  aftei-u-ards  greatly 
ameliorated,  as  for  instance,  in  the  French  province  of  Ga- 
tinais,  where  the  bee-keepers  used  the  heat  of  the  sun  to  melt 
the  combs,  and  separate  the  honey  from  the  melted  wax.  The 
choice  honey  obtained  in  Gatmais,  from  the  sainfoin,  cannot  be 
excelled  by  our  best  extracted  clover  honey,  as  to  color  and 
taste,  and  it  is  sold  m  Paris  altogether. 

Owing  to  these  causes,  strained  honey,  of  different  grades, 
was  a  staple  in  Europe.  But  the  demand  being  ahead  of  the 
supply,  especially  when  the  season  was  unfavorable  for  bees, 
Europe  imported  strained  honey  from  Chili,  and  Cuba,  and 
lately,  extracted  honey  from  Califoniia. 

748.  These  causes  did  not  exist  in  this  counti-y.  Bees 
were  scarce  here  at  first.  The  American  settlers  had  too 
much  work  on  hand  to  care  much  for  bees.  The  few  who 
owned  a  limited  number  of  colonies,  brimstoned  one  of  them 
occasionally,  and  consumed  the  honey  at  home.  The  more 
extensive  bee  owners  could  sell  some  broken  combs  to  their 
neighbors,  or  a  few  pounds  of  strained  honey  to  the  diniggist, 
who  was  not  veiy  hard  to  please,  being  accustomed  to  buy 
Cuba  honey,  harvested  with  the  most  slovenly  carelessness.  By 


EXTRACTED   HONEY.  453 

and  by,  however,  owing  to  veiy  favorable  conditions,  the  wild 
woods  swarmed  with  bees  in  the  ^^ollow  trees,"  and  the  hec- 
hunter  made  his  appearance.  Thousands  of  trees  fell  under 
his  ax,  to  yield  the  sweets  that  they  contamed.  Bee-hunting 
became  an  occupation  in  some  of  our  forests.  The  method 
followed  to  find  the  colonies  established  in  hollow  trees,  was  to 
place  a  bait  of  honey  in  some  open  spot,  attracting  the  bees  by 
burning  a  little  of  the  comb.  When  the  bees  had  formed  a 
bee-line  from  the  honey  to  their  abode,  a  new  baiting  place  was 


Fig.  203. 

COWAX    HONEY    EXTRACTOR 

started  m  a  diagonal  position  to  the  first.     The  meetmg  place 
of  both  lines  was  of  course  the  spot  occupied  by  the  swarm. 

This  rough-and-ready  bee-keeping,  or  rather  bee-killing,  pro- 
duced comparatively  large  quantities  of  honey;  but,  as  this 
honey  was  nearly  always  badly  broken  up  and  mixed  with 
pollen,  dead  bees,  and  rotten  wood,  it  became  customaiy  to 
boil  the  honey,  so  as  to  force  the  impurities  and  the  wax  to 
rise  on  top  with  the  scum.    Hence  the  cheap,  liquid,  dirty  and 


454  HOXEY   PRODUCTIOX. 

opaque  strained  honey,  dark  in  color  and  strong  in  taste.  By 
the  side  of  this  unwholesome  article,  a  little  fancy  comb  honey 
was  sold,  that  led  to  a  national  preference  for  comb  honey. 

But  in  view  of  the  cost  of  comb  to  the  bees  (223),  in  honey, 
time  and  labor,  it  was  earnestly  desired  by  progressive  bee- 
keepers, especially  after  the  invention  of  the  movable  frames, 
that  some  process  be  devised  to  empty  the  honey  out  of  the 
combs  without  damaging  the  latter,  so  that  they  could  be  re- 
turned to  the  bees  to  be  filled  again  and  again. 

749.  In  1865  the  late  Major  de  Hnischka,  of  Dolo,  near 
Venice,  Italy,  invented  ''II  Smelatore/'  the  honey  extractor. 

It  happened  in  this  wise :  He  had  given  to  his  son,  a  small 
piece  of  comb  honey,  on  a  plate.  The  boy  put  the  plate  in 
his  basket,  and  swung  the  basket  around  him,  like  a  sling. 
Hi-uschka  noticed  that  some  honey  had  been  drained  out  by 
the  motion,  and  concluded  that  combs  could  be  emptied  by 
centrifugal  force. 

This  invention  was  hailed,  in  the  whole  bee-keeping  world, 
as  equal  to,  and  the  complement  of,  the  invention  of  movable 
frames;  and  it  fully  deserved  this  honor. 

750.  As  soon  as  we  heard  of  the  discoveiy,  we  had  a  ma- 
chine made.  It  was  not  so  elegant  as  those  which  are  now 
offered  by  our  manufacturers.  It  was  a  bulkj^  and  cumbersome 
affair ;  four  feet  in  diameter  and  three  feet  high ;  yet  it  worked 
to  our  satisfaction,  and  we  became  convinced,  by  actual  trial, 
of  the  great  gain  which  could  be  obtained,  by  returning  the 
empty  combs  to  the  bees. 

751.  Let  us  say  here,  that  the  profit  was  greater  than  we 
had  anticipated;  but  we,  together  with  a  great  many  others, 
first  committed  the  fault  of  extracting,  before  the  honey  was 
altogether  ripened  by  evaporation.  Like  "Novice"  who  thought 
of  emptying  his  cistern  to  put  the  overflow  of  his  extracted 
honey,  we  had  to  go  to  town  again  and  again,  for  jars  and 
barrels,  to  lodge  our  crop.  But  experience  taught  us  that  we 
cannot  get  a  good  merchantable  article,  unless  the  honey  is 
ripe. 


Plate  26. 


FRANCESCO  Di  HRUSCHKA, 

Inventor  of  the  Hone}^  Extractor. 
This    Apiarist   is    mentioned    page    454. 


EXTKACTKD  HONEY.  455 

752.  If  we  give  to  bees  empty  combs,  to  store  their  honey, 
we  will  find,  by  comparing  the  products  of  colonies  who  have 
to  build  their  combs,  with  those  of  colonies  who  always  have 
empty  combs  to  fill,  that  these  last  produce  at  least  twice  as 
much  as  the  others. 

A  little  consideration  will  readily  show,  to  the  intelligent 
bee-keeper,  the  great  advantages  given  to  the  bees  by  furnish- 
ing them  with  a  full  supply  of  empty  combs.  To  illustrate 
all  these  advantages,  let  us  compare  two  colonies  of  bees,  of 
equal  strength,  at  the  beginning  of  the  honey  season ;  one  with 
empty  boxes,  the  other  wiQi  empty  comb  in  the  boxes. 

The  two  colonies  have  been  breeding  plentifully,  and  har- 
vesting a  large  quantity  of  pollen,  and  a  little  honey,  for 
several  weeks  past.  The  brood  chamber  is  full  from  top  to 
bottom.  After  perhaps  one  rainy  day,  the  honey  crop  begins. 
The  bees  that  have  been  given  empty  comby  can  go  right  up 
in  them,  and  begin  storing,  as  fast  as  they  bring  their  honey- 
from  the  fields.  Not  a  minute  is  lost;  and  as  they  have  plenty 
of  storing  room,  there  is  no  need  of  crowding  the  queen  out 
of  her  breeding  cells. 

In  the  other  hive,  there  is  indeed  plenty  of  empty  space 
in  the  upper  story;  but  before  it  can  be  put  to  any  use,  it 
has  to  be  first  partly  filled  with  combs.  Before  a  half  day 
is  over,  the  greater  part  of  the  bees  have  harvested,  and 
brought,  to  their  newly-hatched  companions,  all  the  honey 
that  the  latter  can  possibly  hold  in  their  sacks.  What  shall 
they  do  wilh  the  surplus?  They  have  to  go  into  that  upper 
story,  and  hang  there  (205)  for  hours,  waiting  for  the  honey 
to  be  transformed  into  beeswax,  by  the  wonderful  action  of 
these  admirable  little  stomachs,  whose  work  man  cannot  imi- 
tate, despite  his  science.  But,  while  this  slow  transformation 
is  going  on,  while  the  small  scales  of  wax  are  emerging  from 
under  the  rings  of  the  abdomen  (201)  of  each  industrious 
little  worker;  while  their  sisters  are  slowly  but  busily  cariy- 
ing,  moulding  and  arranging  the  warm  little  pieces  of  wax  in 
their  respective  places,  in  order  to  build  the  frail  comb  (206) ; 


456  HONEY  PRODUCTION. 

during  all  this  time,  the  honey  is  flowmg  in  the  blossoms,  and 
the  other  colonj-  is  fast  increasing  its  supply  of  sweets.  Mean- 
while, the  few  bees,  which  have  found  a  place  for  their  load, 
go  back  after  more,  and,  finding  no  room,  they  watch  for  the 
appearance  of  each  hatching  bee,  from  its  cell,  and  at  once  fill 
that  cell  with  honey ;  thus  depriving  the  queen  of  her  breeding- 
room,  and  forcing  her  to  remain  idle,  at  a  time  when  she 
should  be  laymg  most  busily. 

The  loss  is  therefore  treble.  First,  this  colony  loses  the 
present  work  of  all  the  bees  which  have  to  remain  inside  to 
help  make  wax.  Secondly,  it  loses  the  honey  of  which  ihis 
wax  is  made.  Thirdly,  it  loses  the  production  of  thousands 
of  workers,  by  depriving  the  queen  of  her  breeding-room,  in 
the  brood-chamber.  All  this,  for  what  purpose?  To  enable 
the  owner  to  eat  his  honey  with  the  wax;  when,  as  every  one 
well  knows,  wax  is  tasteless  and  indigestible. 

One  word  more  in  regard  to  the  loss  of  production,  by  the 
eroAvding  of  the  queen.  This  loss  is  two-fold  in  itself.  When 
the  bees  find  that  the  queen  is  crowded  out  of  her  breeding- 
room,  they  become  more  readily  induced  to  make  preparations 
for  swarming   (406). 

It  is  then  that  a  large  number  of  young  bees  would  be 
necessary  to  make  up  for  the  loss  which  the  colony  will  sus- 
tain, in  the  departure  of  the  swarm;  and  yet  the  diminished 
number  of  eggs  laid  produces  exactly  the  reverse  of  the  de- 
sired result. 

There  is  perhaps  a  fourth  item  of  loss,  in  failing  to  furnish 
empty  combs  to  this  colony,  and  that  when  the  season  is  not 
very  favorable.  Many  practical  bee-keepers  have  noticed  that, 
in  rather  unfavorable  seasons,  it  is  difficult  to  induce  bees  to 
work  in  an  empty  surplus  box,  in  which  they  would  work 
readily  if  it  were  furnished  with  combs.  It  is  a  question  which 
may  remain  doubtful,  whether  the  bees  do  not  sometimes,  in 
such  cases,  remain  idle  for  a  day  or  two,  rather  than  begin 
building  comb  in  a  box  which  they  do  not  expect  to  be  able  to 
fill  (745). 


EXTRACTED  HONEY.  457 

753.  In  view  of  the  above  facts,  and  after  an  experience 
of  many  years  with  the  honey  extractor,  we  urge  beginners  to 
produce  extracted  honey  in  preference  to  comb-honey,  when- 
ever they  can  sell  it  readily  for  half  to  two-thirds  as  much 
as  comb  honey.  We  have  shown  the  advantages  of  its  pro- 
duction to  the  bees;  let  us  now  show  the  advantages  to  the 
Apiarist. 

754.  1st,  He  can  control,  and  take  care  of,  a  much 
greater  number  of  colonies.  The  manipulations  of  an  apiary, 
run  for  extracted  honej',  occupy  less  than  one  half  of  the  time 
required  for  the  production  of  comb-honey.  Our  largest  comb- 
honey  producers  acknowledge  that  one  man  cannot  handle 
more  than  two  hmidred  colonies  successfully,  when  rmi  for 
comb-honey,  while  as  many  as  five  hundred  colonies,  located 


Fig.  204. 

TWO    HALF-STOKV    SUPERS    FOK    EXTRACTING. 

m  different  apiaries  (582),  are  managed  successfully  by  one 
Apiarist,  when  run  for  extracted  honey.  During  extracting 
time,  of  course,  additional  help  is  required,  but  this  needs  not 
be  skilled  labor,  which  is  always  hard  to  find. 

755.  2d.  By  the  production  of  extracted  honey,  the  sur- 
plus combs  are  saved,  and  given  to  the  bees  at  the  opening  of 
the  following  harvest.  This  virtually  does  away  with  natural 
swarming,  and  enables  the  bee-keeper  to  control  the  increase 
of  his  colonies  to  suit  his  desires.     One  of  the  most  successful 


458  HONEY  PRODUCTION. 

comb-honey  producers,  Mr.  Manura,  of  Vermont,  who  sold 
some  1-5  tons  of  comb-honey  in  1885,  acknowledged  to  us,  that 
with  his  management  in  the  production  of  comb-honey,  it  was 
nearly  impossible  to  control  swarming. 

756.  The  farmer,  or  merchant,  Avho  keeps  only  a  few 
hives,  to  produce  honey  for  his  own  use,  will  find  it  much 
preferable  to  produce  extracted  honey.  With  three  colonies  of 
bees  and  an  extractor,  in  a  veiy  ordinary  location,  from  150 
to  300  lbs.  of  honey  can  be  produced  on  an  average,  evei-y 
season. 

757.  For  the  production  of  extracted  honey,  we  use  half 
stories  or  cases  (fig.  204)  with  frames  6  inches  deep,  and  of 
the  same  length  as  the  frames  of  the  lower  stoiy.  AVe  have 
also  used  full-stoiy  supers,  but  only  on  standard  Langstroth 
hives,  and  we  decidedly  prefer  the  half-story  supers,  for  sev- 
eral reasons,  after  having  used  both  kinds  on  a  large  scale  for 
years. 

75  S.  The  frames  of  the  half -story  supers  are  more  easily 
handled  when  full,  and  the  combs  are  less  apt  to  break  down 
from  heat  or  handling.  The  half-stoiy  super  is  better  suited 
for  the  use  of  an  average  colony,  and  in  cool  weather  is  more 
easily  kept  warm  by  the  bees,  than  a  full-story.  Very  strong 
colonies,  in  extraordinary  seasons,  can  be  readily  accommodated 
with  two  and  even  three  of  these  cases  successively. 

With  the  full-story  supers,  the  queen  and  the  bees  are  more 
apt  to  desert  the  lower  stoiy  altogether,  in  poor  honey  seasons, 
and  establish  their  brood-nest  in  the  upper  story,  especially 
when  the  combs  of  the  lower  or  brood  chamber  are  old,  and 
those  above  are  new.  The  sole  advantage  of  the  full-story 
super  is  that  the  frames  in  it  are  exactly  of  the  same  size  as 
those  below,  and  can  be  interchanged  with  them  if  necessaiy; 
but  with  large  hives  it  will  never  be  required  to  use  upper  story 
combs  for  feeding,  and  even  if  the  queen  should  breed  in  these 
shallow  cases,  at  times,  she  is  soon  crowded  out  of  them  by 
the  surplus  honey. 

759.     The  upper  story  frames  are  filled  with  comb  founda- 


EXTRACTED  HONEY.  459 

tion  (674),  or  even  willi  old  worker  combs,  and  can  be  used 
indefinitely,  since  the  honey  is  extracted  from  them,  and  they 
are  returned  unbroken  to  the  bees.  "We  have  now  several  thou- 
sands of  these  combs,  some  of  which  have  already  passed  thirty 
or  forty  times  through  the  extractor  and  are  now  as  good  as 
at  first,  nay,  even  better;  for  some,  which  were  very  dark,  are 
lighter  in  color  now,  on  account  of  the  dark  cells  having  been 
shaved  by  the  honey  knife  and  mended,  by  the  bees,  with  new 
wax.  These  supers  are  given  to  the  bees,  a  few  days  previous 
to  the  opening  of  the  honey  crop. 

The  mat  (353),  and  cloth  (352),  are  removed  and  the 
upper  stoiy  is  placed  immediately  over  the  frames  (fig.  72). 

yeO.  One  great  advantage  of  this  style  of  supers,  lies  in 
the  facility,  with  which  the  bees  can  reach  the  upper  story 
from  any  comb,  or  from  any  part  of  a  comb,  either  to  de- 
posit their  honey  or  for  ventilation,  during  hot  weather.  Bees 
show  their  preference  for  these  large  receptacles  very  decidedly. 
For  comparison,  let  two  or  three  wide  frames  (724)— filled 
with  sections  Avhich  are  of  more  difficult  ventilation  and  access 
—be  placed  in  the  center  of  one  of  these  supers  wdih  some 
extracting  frames  on  each  side,  all  equally  filled  with  strips 
of  foundation,  and  the  small  sections  (722)  will  be  filled  last 
almost  in  every  instance,  even  although  placed  nearest  to  the 
center  of  the  brood-nest. 

Mr.  Langstroth  was  the  first  to  call  the  attention  of  Apiarists 
to  the  loss  incurred  by  compelling  bees  to  store  the  surplus 
honey  in  small  receptacles.  The  bee-keeper  cannot  afford  to 
sell  honey  stored  in  small  sections,  except  at  a  considerable 
advance  over  its  value  in  large  frames.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  some  Apiarists  have  practiced  producing  comb  honey  in 
large  frames,  which  has  been  sold  in  "chunks."  They  find  it 
pays,  in  some  markets,  although  sold  at  a  less  price  than  honey 
in  sections. 

For  extracting,  a  super  as  shallow  as  that  used  for  one- 
pound  sections  is  not  satisfactory.  It  requires  too  much 
handling,  for  the  quantity  of  honey  that  may  be  stored  in  a 


460  HOXEY  PRODUCTION. 

frame  only  4^/4  inches  deep  is  inadequate  when  the  extractor 
is  used.  Tlie  smallest  super  that  we  woud  use  on  Langstroth 
hives  is  that  with  a  5%  ii^ch  side  bar  to  the  frame.  The  frames 
of  our  supers  have  a  C-inch  side  bar. 

761.  Colonies,  which  do  not  have  the  breeding  apartment 
nearly  full  of  brood,  honey  and  pollen,  need  not  be  supplied 
with  supers  till  they  show  a  marked  progress.  After  the  open- 
ing of  the  honey  crop,  which  is  very  easily  noticed  by  the 
gi-eater  activity  of  the  bees  and  the  whitening  of  the  upper 
cells  of  their  combs,  a  regular  inspection  of  their  progress  is 
necessary-.  The  season  is  short,  but  the  daily  yield  is  some- 
times enormous. 

762.  Mr.  A.  Braun  stated,  m  the  Bienenzeitung ,  Septem- 
ber, 1854,  that  he  had  a  mammoth  hive  furnished  with  combs 
containing  at  least  184,230  cells,  and  placed  on  a  platform 
scale,  that  its  weight  might  readily  be  ascertained  at  stated 
periods.  On  the  eighteenth  of  May  it  gained  eighteen  pounds 
and  a  half.  On  the  eighteenth  of  June,  a  swarm  weighing 
seven  pounds  issued  from  it,  and  the  following  day  it  gained 
over  six  pounds  in  weight.  Ten  days  of  abundant  pasturage 
would  enable  such  a  colony  to  gather  a  large  surplus,  while 
five  times  the  number  of  equally  favorable  opportmiities  would 
be  of  small  avail  to  a  feeble  one. 

Weights  of  colonies  taken  regularly  by  Swiss  Apiarists  show 
that  twenty  pomids  a  day  of  harvest  is  frequently  gathered  by 
strong  colonies.  A  part  of  this  amount  is  evaporated  during 
the  following  night,  according  to  the  greater  or  less  density 
of  the  nectar  harvested   (2-49,  261). 

The  largest  yield  of  extracted  honey,  ever  harvested  by 
the  colonies  of  one  apiary  under  our  control,  was  13,000 
pounds  in  about  fifty  days,  the  most  protracted  honey  crop 
we  ever  knew.  This  was  harvested  by  eighty-seven  colonies, 
making  a  daily  average  of  three  pounds  a  day  per  colony  of 
evaporated. honey.     Such  seasons  are  scarce. 

As  some  colonies  harvest  much  more  than  others,  they  need 
more  attention. 


EXTRACTED  HONEY.  461 

763.  To  secure  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  extracted 
honey,  the  colony  should  never  he  left  without  sortie  empty 
comb. 

As  soon  as  the  combs  of  one  of  these  supers  are  about  three, 
fourths  full,  we  put  another  super  under  the  first,  and  some- 
times a  third  under  the  second.  All  this  without  waiting  for 
the  honey  to  be  sealed;  but  we  never  remove  the  honey,  to 
extract  it,  mitil  the  crop  is  at  an  end,  for  we  want  to  get  our 
honey  entirely  ripened. 

Honey  is  evaporated,  or  ripened,  by  the  forced  circulation  of 
air,  caused  by  the  fanning  of  the  bees  through  the  hive,  in 
connection  with  the  great  heat  generated  by  them.  As  honey 
evaporates,  it  diminishes  in  volume,  and  as  long  as  the  bees 
continue  their  harvest,  they  constantly  bring  in  unripened,  or 
watery  honey,  which  they  store  in  the  partly  filled  cells  that 
contain  honey  already  evaporated.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
unsealed  honey,  after  the  crop  is  over,  is  as  ripe  as  honey 
sealed  during  the  crop,  and  sometimes  riper.  If  the  crop  is 
abmidant,  they  often  seal  their  combs  too  soon,  and  the  honey 
thus  sealed  may  afterwards  ferment  in  the  cell  and  burst  the 
capping. 

Extracted  Honey. 

761.  Some  Apiarists  extract  the  honey  as  fast  as  it  is 
harvested  by  the  bees,  and  afterwards  ripen  it  artificially  by 
exposing  it  to  heat  in  open  vessels.  We  do  not  like  this 
method,  and  prefer  to  extract  the  whole  crop  at  once.  It  is 
much  more  economical,  for,  with  our  system,  one  skilled  man 
attends  to  as  many  as  five  or  six  apiaries  during  the  honey 
crop,  and  extracts  at  leisure  afterwards,  with  almost  any  kind 
of  cheap  help.  Since  honey  now  has  to  compete  in  price  with 
the  cheapest  sweets,  the  question  of  economical  production  is 
not  to  be  disregarded. 

"He  who  produces  at  maximum  cost  will  fail.  He  who  pro- 
duces at  minimum  cost  will  succeed."— (Jas.  Heddon.) 


462 


HOXEY  PRODUCTION. 


What  proportion  of  water  dees  fresb -gathered  nectar  con- 
tain? A  number  of  observers  have  attempted  to  answer  this 
question  and  have  made  experiments  upon  it.  Great  have  been 
the  differences  and  in  some  cases,  i^ersons  who  had  made  but 
one  or  two  experiments  attempted  to  make  a  positive  assertion 
of  a  stated  proportion.  But  no  rule  can  be  given.  At  times, 
the  nectar  is  so  veiy  thin  that  it  drops  out  of  the  cells  like 
water  if  the  combs  are  inverted  or  slightly  inclined,  when 
handled.    At  other  times,  the  nectar  has  great  consistency  when 


Fig.  205. 

NOVICE    HCXLY    EXTRACTCR. 


first  gathered.  Some  European  Apiarists  hold  that  heather 
honey  can  never  be  extracted,  because  of  its  density  almost 
immediately  after  it  is  harvested.  The  greater  or  less  density 
of  honey  at  the  time  it  is  brought  in  from  the  field  depends 
on  the  kind  of  blossom  from  which  it  is  taken,  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  soil  at  that  time,  whether  dry  or  wet,  and  on 
atmospheric  conditions.  The  most  watei-y  honey  is  perhaps 
harvested  from  such  source  as  the  basswood,  after  rainy  weath- 
er and  when  the  atmosphere  is  heavily  laden  with  electricity 
and  moisture;  while  plants  which  grow  in  dry  sandy  soils,  like 


HARVESTING.  463 

some  varieties  of  heather  or  the  moimtain  sage,  will  furnish, 
in  dry  weather,  honey  that  is  ripe  almost  as  soon  as  gathered. 

765.  As  some  colonies  do  not  begin  work  in  the  supers 
until  very  late,  and  do  not  fill  all  the  space  given  them,  the 
surplus  of  other  colonies  can  be  given  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  all  will  be  equally  filled.  This  can  be  done  without  brush- 
ing the  bees  off  (-485). 

The  equalizing  of  empty  combs  in  the  surplus  stories  of 
different  colonies,  towards  the  end  of  the  crop,  will  save  time 
in  extracting,  as  the  supers  will  be  found  more  evenly  full. 
The  giving  of  a  few  combs  of  honey  to  a  colony  that  has 
not  yet  begun  work  in  the  supers  also  acts  as  an  inducement, 
and  gives  the  bees  new  energy. 

HARVESTING. 

766.  The  extracting,  to  be  done  swiftly,  requires  the  work 
of  four  persons:  three  men  and  a  boy.  This  work  is  done 
at  a  time  when  the  bees  have  ceased  to  harvest  honey,  and 
the  greatest  care  has  to  be  exercised  not  to  leave  any  honey 
within  the  reach  of  robber  bees.  The  work  of  opening  the 
hives,  removing  the  combs  and  brushing  off  the  bees,  must  be 
done  quietly,  but  swiftly  and  carefully.  The  receptacles  for 
combs  should  each  have  a  cover,  and  the  hive  should  be  closed 
and  its  entrance  reduced,  as  promptly  as  possible.  In  this 
way,  there  is  not  the  least  danger  of  robbing;  but  if  robbing 
is  once  begun,  by  some  carelessness  or  forgetfulness  of  the 
operator,  the  work  has  to  be  stopped  until  it  has  subsided. 

767.  The  utensils  needed  for  neat  extracting  on  a  large 
scale  are:  In  the  apiary— a  good  smoker  (382),  one  or  two 
brushes  made  of  asparagus  tops,  or  some  other  light  fibrous 
material,  a  wood  chisel  to  loosen  the  cases,  two  tin  pans, 
described  farther  on  (770),  one  comb  bucket,  and  two  strong 
"rohher  cloths" 

768.  The  "robber  cloths,"  so  named  by  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller, 


464 


HOXEY  PRODUCTION 


are  used  to  cover  the  cases  to  keep  away  robbers.     They  ai^ 
made  of  very  coarse  cloth  or  gunny,  about  a  yard  square. 

* '  Take  two  pieces  of  lath,  each  about  as  long  as  the  hive,  and 
lay  one  upon  the  other,  with  one  edge  of  the  cloth  between 
them.  The  cloth  is  longer  than  the  lath,  allowing  6  inches  or 
more  of  the  cloth  to  project  at  each  end  of  the  lath.  Now  nail 
the  laths  together  with  IV2  inch  wire  nails,  clinching  them. 
Serve    the    opposite    end   the    same  way,   and   the   robber   cloth 


Fig.   206. 

SUPER  WITH  ROBBER  CLOTH  AND  PAN*. 


is  complete.  You  can  take  hold  of  the  lath  with  one  hand,  lift 
the  cloth  from  a  hive  or  super,  and  with  a  quick  throw,  in- 
stantly cover  up  again  your  hive  or  super  perfectly  bee  tight." 
("A  Year  Among  the  Bees,"  1886.) 

The  operator  opens  a  hive,  removes  the  super,  places  it  in 
a  tin  pan,  and  covers  it  with  a  robber  cloth.  He  then  ex- 
amines the  brood  chamber,  from  which  one  or  two  combs  may 
be  removed  if  advisable.     We  usually  leave  all  the  honey  in 


HARVESTING. 


465 


the  lower  stoiy,  unless  the  bees  are  crowded  out  of  breeding 
room,  which  will  not  happen,  if  they  had  plenty  of  room  above. 

769.  The  re- 
moval of  the  bees 
from  the  supers, 
may  be  simplified 
by  the  bee-escape 
(fig.  207).  This  iin- 
Fig.  207.  plement    is    placed 

PORTER'S   BEE-ESCAPE.  ill  a  board  V2  inch 

in  thickness,  and  of  the  size  of  the  top  of  the  brood-chamber 
and  so  cleated  that,  when  placed  between  the  brood  chamber 
and  the  super,  there  will  be  a  full  bee-space  both  above  and 
below  it.  The  hole  for  the  escape  should  be  made  near  the 
center  of  the  board  by  bormg  two  IVg  inch  holes,  2^/^  inches 
from  center  to  center  and  cutting  the  wood  between  them. 
One  escape  to  the  board  is  sufficient.  If  there  is  no  brood, 
or  queen,  in  the  super,  and  the  escape  is  put  on  the  day 
before,  the  bees  will  practically  be  all  out  the  next  mornirr^, 
and  sometimes  within  six  hours  after  it  has  been  placed  on 
the  hive. 

The  only  objection  to  the  bee  escapes  is  that  they  must  be 
placed  on  the  hives  the  day  previous,  and  this  necessitates  an 
extra  trip,  when  the  bees  are  located  in  an  out-apiary.  Other- 
wise they  are  veiy  useful,  if  not  left  on  the  hive  through  the 
heat  of  the  day,  when  the  exclusion  of  bees  from  the  super 
might  cause  collapse  of  the  combs,  by  lack  of  ventilation,  in 
very  liot  weather. 

770.  In  the  honey  house,  there  should  be  an  extractor,  a 
capping  can  (fig.  208),  a  honey  knife,  a  funnel  with  sieve,  a 
pail,  a  barrel,  and  two  tin  pans  like  those  used  in  the  apiary. 
Each  person  may  be  provided  with  a  good  enamel-cloth  apron, 
and  all  the  windows  furnished  with  wire  cloth  netting,  to  fal- 
low the  bees  to  escape  (586).  The  tin  pans  above  mentioned 
are  shallow,  in  the  shape  of  bread  pans,  large  enough  to 
receive  one  of  the  supers  freely,  to  keep  the  leaking  honey 


466 


HONEY  PRODUCTION. 


from  daubing  anything,  or  from  attracting  robbers    (666). 
They  are  supplied  with  strong  handles. 

771.  We  have  said  that  we  do  not  usually  take  honey 
from  the  brood  chamber,  but  in  an  emergency  we  sometimes 
extract  even  from  combs  containmg  brood.  Sealed  brood  is 
not  injured  by  the  rotation  but  one  should  abstain  from  taking 
combs    containing-    unsealed    larva?. 

772.  In  the  extracting  room,   a   man  uncaps  the   combs, 


Fig.  208. 

THE    DADANT    CAPPIXG-CAN. 


as  fast  as  they  are  brought.  He  stands  before  the  capping- 
can  (fig.  208).  The  capping  can  is  formed  of  a  lower  can  B, 
24  inches  wide  and  14  inches  high  with  a  slanting  bottom,  a 
faucet  and  a  central  pivot  C.  On  this  lower  can  is  placed 
another  can  A,  23  inches  wide  and  22  inches  high,  with  a 
coarse  wire  cloth  bottom  restmg  at  the  center  on  the  pivot  C. 
The  upper  can  acts  as  a  large  sieve.  On  the  top  of  it  is  placed 
a  wooden  frame  D,  notched,  so  as  to  fit  on  the  edges  of  the 


HARVESTING.  467 

can.  It  is  on  this  frame  that  the  combs  are  imcapped,  and 
the  cappings  fall  in  the  sieve,  where  the  honey  drains  out  of 
them,  into  the  lower  can.  Our  capping  can  is  meant  to  hold 
the  eappings  of  two  days'  extracting. 

Manufacturers   generally    call   this    implement    "uncapping 


Fig.  209. 

UNCAPPING  AND  EXTRACTING. 

(From  The  American   Bee  Journal.) 

can,"  because  it  is  used  when  uncapping.     We  prefer  to  ca)i 
it  "capping  can,"  because  it  receives  the  eappings! 

773.     The  all-metal  extractors,  of  different  makes,  are  the 
only  ones  now  in   use.     Two-frame  extractors   are  the  most 


468  HONEY  PRODUCTION. 

common,  but  we  use  four-frame  extractors  altogether,  one  in 
each  apiary.  These  extractors  accommodate  eight  half-stoiy 
frames. 

774.  In  regard  to  the  honey  or  uncapping  knife,  justice 
compels  us  to  say  that,  so  far,  to  our  knowledge,  there  is 
but  one  which  is  really  practical,  the  Bingham  honey  knife. 
This  knife  does  away  with  the  annoyance  of  having  the  cap- 
pmgs  stick  to  the  comb  again,  after  having  been  shaved  off, 
because  it  is  made  with  a  bevel^  which  causes  the  shaver  to 
hold  it  in  a  slanting  position,  so  that  the  cappings  cannot 
stick  to  the  comb  again,  unless  purposely  allowed  to  do  so. 

A  machine  has  been  devised  to  perforate  the  cells  mstead  of 
uncapping  them.  There  are  numerous  objections  to  such  an 
instrument.  It  does  not  always  open  the  cells  sufficiently  to 
allow  the  honey  to  drain  out,  it  wastes  the  cappings  which 


Fig.  210. 

THE    BINGHAM    KNIFE. 

would  otherw^ise  furnish  beeswax  enough  to  pay  for  the  entire 
cost  of  extracting  and  it  causes  the  little  bits  of  wax  to  float 
in  the  honey,  increasing  the  amount  of  scum  that  may  rise  to 
the  top.  We  warn  our  readers  against  any  such  contrivance. 
We  discarded  them  years  ago,  after  trial. 

As  fast  as  the  combs  are  uncapped  on  both  sides,  they  are 
put  into  the  extractor,  which  may  be  turned  by  a  boy.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  combs,  that  are  placed  opposite  one 
another,  be  of  nearly  equal  weight,  as  the  unequal  weight 
causes  the  extractor  to  swing  right  aiid  left,  fatiguing  the 
boy  and  injuring  the  machine^. 

775.  A  quiet,  regular  motion  is  all  that  is  necessaiy  tc 
throw  the  honey  out,  and,  in  warm  weather,  it  fairly  rains 
against  the  sides  of  the  can  with  a  noise  similar  to  that  of  a 
shower  on  a  tin  roof. 


HARVESTING.  469 

776.  Now  is  the  time  to  invite  the  neighbors  and  their 
children  to  come  to  see  the  fun,  and  taste  the  golden  nectar. 
Aside  from  the  pleasure  of  making  everybody  happy,  the 
present  of  a  few  pomids  of  honey  proves  an  inducement  to 
its  use,  and  an  advertisement  for  the  producer.  Extracting- 
day  should  always  be  miderstood  to  mean  "free  honey  to  all 
visitors."  Let  them  visit  the  honey-room,  and  if  the  ladies 
get  their  dresses  a  little  daubed  while  peeping  in  the  ex- 
tractor, they  will  soon  find  out  that  honey  does  not  stain  like 
grease,  but  will  icash  off  in  warm  water. 

777.  After  the  combs  are  extracted  on  one  side,  they 
are  turned  over  and  extracted  on  the  otlier.     Mr.  Stanley,  of 


Fig.  211. 

LARGE    FUNNEL    AND    .«IEVE. 

New  York,  invented  an  extractor  in  which  the  combs  are 
turned  over  by  simply  reversing  the  motion  of  the  gear. 
Similar  extractors  were  introduced  into  England,  by  Mr. 
Cowan,  several  years  ago. 

The  Cowan  extractors,  fig.  203,  have  been  improved  upon 
again  and  again,  until  now  most  of  the  machines  are  made 
so  that  the  combs  may  be  reversed  without  slacking  percepti- 
bly or  reversing  the  motion.  The  only  fault  of  the  reversing 
extractors  is  their  large  size,  which  renders  them  rather  cum- 
bersome. 

778.  The  extractor  is  fastened  on  a  high  platform,  so 
that  the  honey  pail  can  be  put  under  the  faucet.  A  barrel 
is  in  readiness,  with  the  large  funnel  and  sieve  over  it.    This 


470  HONEY  PRODUCTION. 

sieve  should  be  large  enough  to  take  a  pailful  of  honey,  so 
as  to  cause  no  delay. 

A  mark  is  made  on  the  barrel,  with  a  crayon,  or  chalk,  as 
each  pailful  is  i^oui-ed  in.  In  this  way  we  know  when  the 
barrel  is  full,  without  having  to  gauge  it,  and  we  avoid  having 
the  honey  run  over  and  waste. 

The  latest  method  is  to  have  a  large  tank  instead  of  a 
barrel  to  receive  the  honey.  The  tank  is  intended  to  ripen 
the  hon(!y  and  is  usually  made  of  galvanized  iron.  The  writer 
has  seen  tanks  of  this  kind  out  in  the  open  air,  in  California, 
where  it  never  rains  during  the  summer  season.  Honey  that 
is  allowed  to  remain  in  an  open  tank  with  only  a  light  cloth 
over  it,  in  a  hot  room,  will  often  ripen  considerably  by 
evaporation.  It  is  a  good  method.  But  as  we  have  a  number 
of  out-apiaries,  we  find  it  more  convenient  to  barrel  our  honey, 
especially  as  we  always  wait  till  the  bees  have  ripened  the 
honey  before  extracting  it.  Not  only  have  we  barreled  our 
honey  for  years,  but  very  extensive  apiarists  around  us  have 
done  tlie  samoj  among  whom  we  will  cite  E.  J.  Baxter  of 
Nauvoo,  Illinois,  who  produces  a  number  of  tons  of  extracted 
honey  every  season.  The  honey  must  be  veiy  ripe  when  har- 
vested and  the  barrels,  if  used  in  preference  to  tanks,  must 
be  of  the  proper  kind  and  quality.     (S29.) 

779.  We  would  advise  beginners,  who  extract  for  the  first 
time,  to  go  slowly  and  carefully.  A  little  care,  besides  saving 
time,  will  save  the  waste  of  several  pounds  of  honey,  and  make 
things  more  comfortable;  for  a  jDound  of  honey  wasted  goes  a 
great  way  towards  making  everything  slicky  and  dirty.  If  a 
splendid  crop  and  neat  work  are  pleasurable,  a  daubed 
honey-room  and  cross  bees  in  the  apiary  irritate  both  the 
Apiarist  and  his  assistants,  who  soon  become  sick  of  the  work. 
When  things  are  rightly  managed,  the  work  is  so  delightful 
that  more  help  cmi  be  found  than  is  needed. 

780.  Of  all  manipulations,  extracting  is  that  which  re- 
quires the  greatest  precautions  against  robbing  (664).  Care- 
fully avoid  all  unnecessary  exposure  of  comb  or  honey.    Rob- 


ilAR\*ESTTJs'G.  471 

bers    not    only    anncy    the  Apiarist,  but    cause    the    bees    to 
get  angrj",  and  to  sting. 

781.  All  the  cases,  when  extracted,  are  piled  up  on  an 
oil-cloth  carpet,  till  the  day's  work  is  done.  The  combs  are 
not  put  back  into  the  hive  before  evening,  at  sundown;  to 
prevent  too  much  excitement  in  the  apiaiy.  In  half  an  hour, 
eveiy  hand  helping,  the  whole  number  is  distributed  on  the 
hives;  though  we  may  have  extracted  as  much  as  three  thou- 
sand pounds  in  a  day. 

There  are  seasons,  in  which  a  continuation  of  the  honey 
crop,  permits  returning  the  combs,  as  fast  as  they  are  ex- 
tracted. In  such  seasons  it  causes  no  excitement,  and  is  much 
more  convenient. 

782.  Within  two  or  three  days  after  extracting,  the  bees 
have  cleaned  the  combs,  and  repaired  them.  But,  to  j^revent 
the  moths  from  injuring  them,  we  keep  them  on  the  hives 
during  the  whole  summer;  the  bees  take  care  of  them,  and  in 
the  Winter,  we  pile  up  the  cases,  carefully  closed,  in  cold 
rooms  where  the  cold  of  Winter  destroys  the  eggs  of  the  moth 
(802). 

In  localities,  where  there  are  two  or  more  distinct  crops 
of  hone}-,  each  crop  should  be  harvested  separately.  Thus, 
we  always  extract  the  June  crop  in  July,  and  the  Fall  crop 
in  September. 

Honey  production,  with  the  above  methods,  is  so  successful 
that  the  problem  for  practical  Apiarists  is  no  longer,  how 
to  produce  large  crops  of  honey,  but  how  to  sell  it  (839). 
Extracted  honey  can  certainly  be  i^roduced,  at  very  low  cost, 
and  it  can  be  truly  said,  that  in  the  last  fifty  years,  there 
has  been  more  progress  in  bee-culture,  than  in  any  other 
branch  of  rural  econom5\ 

783.  As  the  wax  of  the  cappings  amounts  to  a  little 
more  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  honey  extracted, 
and  as  these  cappings  even  after  they  are  well  drained,  con- 
tain a  large  amount  of  honey  fit  to  be  converted  into  vinegar 
when  separated  from  the  cappmgs  by  washing,  the  expense  of 
extracting  is  more  than  compensated. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Diseases  of  Bees. 

784.  Bees  are  subject  to  but  few  diseases  that  deserve 
special  notice.  We  have  said  (626)  that  we  consider  diar- 
rhoea as  the  result  of  an  accumulation  of  foeces  only,  but  Mr. 
Cheshire  has  examined  some  of  the  foeces  of  diarrhoea,  and 
found  in  some  of  them  living  organisms,  which  indicate  that, 
sometimes,  the  distension  of  the  abdomen  is  not  caused  by  the 
overloading  of  the  intestines  alone.  These  organisms,  when 
better  imown,  will  probably  explain  some  of  the  losses  of  bees, 
after  AVinter,  and  the  Spring  dwindling  (659),  which  re- 
duces so  many  colonies. 

785.  There  is,  however,  a  disease  of  bees  which  seems 
akin  to  diarrhoea  and  at  times  becomes  epidemic.  The  bees 
do  not  discharge  any  excrements  but  their  abdomens  are  dis- 
tended with  a  fetid  matter,  they  lose  their  hairs  and  assume 
a  smooth  black  appearance.  They  are  first  noticed  crawling 
at  the  top  of  the  combs  as  if  cold  and  numb,  looking  as  if 
paralyzed  in  some  of  their  limbs.  This  disease,  w^hich  is  rare, 
has  yet  been  noticed  in  many  countries  and  has  been  variously 
named  ''bee-paralysis"  in  this  countiy,  "vertigo-dizziness"  in 
Europe,  "Mai  de  Mai"  in  France,  "Mai  de  Maggio"  in  Italy, 
"Maikrankheit"  in  Germany.  Cheshire  has  described  it  under 
the  name  of  Bacillus  Gaytoni  becaivse  he  obtained  the  first 
samples  of  the  disease  from  a  Miss  Gayton.  Other  Englisk 
scientists  have  called  it  Bacillus  depilis,  which  is  much  more 
appropriate,  since  the  diseased  bees  generally  lose  their  hairs 
during  the  progi'ess  of  the  malady.  This  disease  was  first 
considered  by  us  as  a  sort  of  constipation  which  degenerated 
into  a  contagious  infection,  as  it  usually  begins  after  a  hard 
winter,  but  the  fact  that  it  exists  in  warm  countries  such  as 
Florida,    California,    Italy,    &c.,    would    indicate    that    cold 

472 


FOUL-BHOOD.  473 

weather  is  not  the  originatmg  cause.  The  disease  is  not  com- 
monly dangerous,  and  does  not  seem  to  propagate  itself  from 
one  colony  to  another,  but  in  seme  seasons,  during  the  month 
of  May,  it  has  caused  great  ravages  in  some  apiaries.  In  the 
province  of  Ancone,  Italy,  during  the  years  1901-05,  entire 
apiaries  were  depopulated  just  at  the  opening  of  the  honey 
harvest  by  this  strange  malady.  This  is  a  disease  of  the  adult 
bees  and  not  of  the  brood. 

Mr.  0.  0.  Poppleton  of  Florida  recommends  the  jprinkling 
of  the  bees  and  combs  in  the  diseased  hives,  with  powdered 
sulphur.  But  as  this  seems  to  stop  the  disease  mainly  by 
destroying  all  the  sick  bees,  and  as  it  also  destroys  the  un- 
sealed brood  unless  this  be  removed,  we  do  not  recommend  it. 
An  Italian,  Mr.  A.  Belluci  of  the  province  of  Ancone,  suc- 
ceeded in  entirely  preventing  the  disease  in  his  apiary,  while 
his  neighbors'  bees  were  suffering  heavily,  by  feeding  them  a 
preparation  made  by  boiling  lavender,  garden  ginger,  rose- 
mary, savory^  and  other  aromatic  plants  and  flowers  in  wine 
mixed  with  honey.  Since  the  wine  was  evidently  added  as  a 
tonic  but  lost  all  its  alcohol  by  boiling,  we  judge  that  it  did 
but  little  good,  unless  it  be  from  the  tonic  properties  of  the 
grape.  He  also  added  a  veiy  small  quantity  of  salicylic  acid, 
about  one  per  thousand,  which  would  be  ample.  Until  more 
positive  experiments  are  made,  we  would  recommend  the  use 
of  a  similar  preparation,  for  the  cure  or  prevention  of  this 
disease,  which  is  not  usually  injurious. 

Foul-Brood. 

786.  There  are  other  unimportant  diseases,  which  have 
not  yet  been  studied,  but  all  are  nothing,  when  compared  to 
the  dreadful  contagious  malady,  already  known  thousands  of 
years  ago*  and  commonly  called  foul-hrood,  because  it  shows 

♦  As  Aristotle  (History  of  Animals,  Book  IX.,  Chap.  IfO)  speaks  of  a 
disease  which  is  accompanied  by  a  disgusting  smell  of  the  hive,  there 
Is  reason  to  believe  that  foul-brood  was  common  more  than  two  thou- 
sand years  ago. 


474  DISEASES    OF    BEES. 

its  effects  mainly  by  the  dying  of  the  brood,  the  contagion 
being  transmitted  through  the  food  of  the  larvae. 

787.  Dr.  G.  F.  White,  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industrj^ 
at  Washington,  has  lately  described  two  kinds  of  foul  brood, 
which  he  denominates  "bacillus  pluton,"  until  lately  popularly 
and  commonly  called  "black  brood,"  and  "bacillus  larvae," 
the  more  m.alignant  kind,  which  is  not  so  easily  produced  in 
cultures  by  bacteriologists,  since  Mr.  White  was  unable  to 
produce  it  in  the  common  cultures,  a  bouillon  made  of  bee- 
larvae  being  necessary.  The  first  he  denominates  "European 
foul-brood"  because  it  was  first  described  in  Europe,  the  second 
"American  foul-brood"  because  it  was  first  described  by  him- 
self in  America,  but  both  Idnds  evidently  exist  in  either  hemis- 
sphere.  The  name  "bacillus"  f  means  "a  stick"  and  is  applied 
to  both  diseases  because  the  genns  of  the  disease  are  imper- 
ceptible sticks  which  break  successively  into  several  parts, 
every  one  of  which  form.s  a  colony  of  spores,  that  pass  through 
divers  shapes  before  developing  into  new  bacilli.  We  can 
judge  of  the  promptness  of  their  reproduction,  and  of  their 
minuteness,  when  we  read  in  Cheshire,  that  a  dead  larva  fre- 
quently contains  as  many  as  one  billion  of  these  spores.     (28.) 

788.  Bacillus  pluton,  perhaps  the  "bacillus  alvei"  of  Cheshire 
being  the  lesser  of  the  two  diseases  ■>A-ill  be  described  first. 
It  has  been  quite  fully  mentioned  by  Dr.  Philhps,  in  Circular 
No.  79  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  to  which  we  refer  the 
student.  This  disease  has  been  quite  prevalent  in  the  United 
States  since  1900. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    BACILLUS    PLUTON. 

The  brood  dies  a  little  earlier  than  in  the  American  foul- 
brood,  a  comparatively  small  percentage  of  it  being  ever 
capped,  the  diseased  larvae  which  are  covered  having  sunken 
or  perforated  cappings.  A  small  yellow  spot  near  the  head 
of  the  larva  is  the  first  sign,  at  death  it  turns  yellow,  then 
black.     Some  of  the  dead  and  dried  larvae  are  removed  by 

■fBacillus,  plural  bacilli,  from  the  Latin,  a  stick. 


FOUL-BROOD.  475 

the  bees,  which  is  never  the  ease  "with  the  other  disease  because 
of  the  sticky  adherence  of  the  dead  matter  to  the  cell  wall. 
Decaying  larvae  that  have  died  of  this  disease  have  no  ropiness 
usually  and  cannot  be  stretched  out  in  a  string  as  with  the 
other  disease.  There  is  very  little  odor  from  the  dead  larvae 
and  when  there  is  any,  it  does  not  resemble  that  of  a  "glue 
pot'*  which  is  characteristic  of  the  more  dangerous  foul-brood. 
The  odor  m^ore  resembles  that  of  soured  brood. 

The  methods  of  treatment  of  the  two  diseases  differ  greatly 
and  -vvdll  be  m.entioned  farther.  For  a  m.oro  complete  descrip- 
tion of  bacillus  pluton,  see  "Bacteria  of  the  Apiary,"  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  Technical  Series  No.  14,  by  G.  F. 
White,  Ph.  D. 

789.  Bacillus  larvae  or  foul-brood  proper  is  a  more  malig- 
nant disease.     It  may  be  very  clearly  described. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    MALIGNANT    OR    AMERICAN  FOUL-BROOD. 

"In  most  cases  the  larva  is  attacked  when  nearly  ready  to 
seal  up.  It  turns  sli::htly  yellovv'-,  or  grayish  spots  appear  on  it. 
It  then  seems  to  soften,  settles  down  in  the  bottom  of  the  cell, 
in  a  shapeless  mass,  at  first  white,  yellow,  or  grayish  in  color, 
soon  changing  to  brown.  At  this  stage  it  becomes  glutinous 
and  ropy;  then,  after  a  varying  length  of  time,  owing  to  the 
weather,  it  dries  up  into  a  dark  coftee-colored  mass.  Usually 
the  bees  make  no  attempt  to  clean  out  the  infected  cells,  and 
they  wiU  sonietim.es  fill  them  with  honey,  covering  up  this  dried 
foul-brood  m.atter  at  the  bottom. 

"Sometimes  the  larvae  do  not  die  until  sealed  over.  We  have 
been  told  that  sixh  m-ay  be  easily  detected  by  a  sunken  cap- 
ping perforated  by  a  'pin-hole.'  This  is  by  no  means  invariably 
the  case.  Such  larvae  will  often  dry  up  entirely,  without 
the  cap  being  perforated  or  perceptibly  sunken,  although  it 
usually  becomes  darker  in  color  than  those  covering  healthy 
larvae. 

"The  most  fatal  misapprehension  has  been  in  regard  to  the 
smell  of  the  disease.  In  its  first  stages  there  is  no  perceptible 
smell,  and  it  is  not  until  the  disease  has  made  a  considerable 
progress  that  any  unusual  smell  would  be  noticed  by  m.ost  per- 
sons.    In  the  last  stages,  when  sometimes  half  or  more  of  the 


476 


DISEASES    OF    BEES. 


cells  in  the  hive  are  filled  with  rotten  brood,  the  odor  becomes 
sufficientlj^  pronounced,  but  the  nose  is  not  to  be  relied  on  to 
decide  whether  a  colony  has  foul  brood  or  not.  Long  before  it 
can  be  detected  by  the  sense  of  smell,  the  colony  is  in  a  condi- 
tion to  communicate  the  disease  to  others. 

The  eye  alone  can  be  depended  on,  and  it  must  be  a  sharp  and 


Fig.  212. 

APPEARANCE  OF  FOUL-BROOD. 

(Courtesy  of  N.  E.  France.) 


trained  eye,  too,  if  any  headway  is  to  be  made  in  curing  the 
disease."     (J.  A.  Green,  in  "Gleanings,"  January,  1887.) 

790.  "Foul-brood  can  be  detected  in  the  Spring,  either 
through  an  unusual  spreading  of  the  brood,  resulting  from  an 
unnoticed  previous  infection,  of  an  indefinite  number  of  cells, 
which  contain  sick  or  dead  larvae,  or,  if  the  disease  is  just  be- 
ginning, by  the  presence  among  the  brood,  of  sick  or  rotten 
larvae.  The  larvae  die  and  rot  either  before  or  after  sealing.  It 
is  only  when  the  disease  has  lasted  for  some  time,  that  the 


FOUL-BROOD.  477 

cappings  are  punctured,  and  that  the  brood  has  an  offensive 
odor.'  — (Bertrand,  Re^'ue  Internationale  d' Apiculture.) 

Two  things  are  important  in  the  detection  of  the  disease 
and  on  these  we  will  insist,  the  ropiness  and  the  glue-pot  smell. 
The  ropiness  gave  the  idea  of  the  French  name  of  the  disease 
'la  loque"  which  means  "rag,  tatter."  E\'idently  the  French- 
man who  gave  it  a  name  noticed  that  the  dead  lar^-a,  if  you 
attempt  to  draw  it  out,  comes  in  tatters,  in  rags,  just  as  so 
much  liquid  India  rubber.  The  glue-pot  smell  is  also  plain. 
These  matters  are  important  for  there  is  a  disease  called 
"sac  brood"  which  is  far  from  being  as  dangerous  as  foul- 
brood  and  has  most  of  the  symptoms  of  foul-brood  except 
the  ropiness  and  smell  (801). 

701.  CURE.  For  bacillus  larvae,  or  American,  ropy  foul- 
brood,  several  methods  of  cure  by  antiseptics  were  more  or  less 
successful,  in  the  hands  of  Hilbert,  Chas.  F.  Muth  and  the 
noted  Swiss  apiarist,  Bertrand.  The  latter  quite  successfully 
coped  "vx-ith  the  disease  by  the  use  of  fumes  of  salicylic  acid 
through  a  method  given  in  our  former  editions.  He  and 
Cheshire  also  used,  in  the  food  of  the  diseased  colonies,  carbolic 
acid  in  the  proportion  of  an  ounce  to  40  pounds  of  syrup. 
But  the  use  of  drugs,  either  in  the  food  of  the  bees  or  in  fumes 
requires  too  careful  and  persistent  treatment  to  be  safe  in  a 
general  way.  As  an  e\'idence  of  this,  we  will  quote  Mr.  E.  R. 
Root  in  the  A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture  some  years  ago : 

"We  did  not  get  very  satisfactory  results  by  the  use  of 
drugs,  when  foul-brood  visited  our  apiary  some  years  ago.  We 
did  find,  however,  that  they  invariably  held  the  disease  in 
check;  but  as  soon  as  their  use  was  discontinued,  the  disease 
broke  out  again.  While  I  do  not  advise  one  to  place  his  sole 
dependence  on  drugs,  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  regular  treatment, 
they  might  and  probably  would  prove  very  efficacious.  They 
would  also  be  very  useful  in  preventing  the  breaking  out  C-" 
the  disease  if  all  syrups  fed  to  the  bees  were  medicated  " 


478  DISEASES    OF    BEES. 

Some  apiarists  insist  that  the  only  ^-ay  to  get  rid  of  ropy 
foul-brood  is  to  entirely  destroy  the  colonies  suffering  from  it, 
hives,  bees  and  combs,  by  fire.  This  is  wanton  waste  and 
quite  unnecessary. 

In  spite  of  Cheshire's  assertion  that  no  spores  are  to  be 
found  in  the  honey  of  diseased  colonies,  practice  has  sufficiently 
proven  that  Cheshire's  assertions  on  that  score  were  erroneous. 
The  honey,  in  this  disease,  is  the  main  source  of  transm.ission. 
Schirach,  the  man  who  discovered  that  a  queen  m.ay  be  reared 
from  any  egg  that  would  produce  a  worker  (109),  in  his 
'' Histoire  Naturelle  de  la  Reine  AheilW  (The  Hague,  1771), 
recom.m-ends  the  rem.oval  of  all  the  com.bs,  starving  the  bees  for 
two  days,  then  giving  them  fresh  combs  with  a  remedy  composed 
of  diluted  honey  with  nutm^eg  and  saffron. 

7S2.  Following  this  advice,  D.  A.  Jones  of  Canada,  and  later, 
Wm.  McEvoy,  then  inspector  of  apiaries  for  the  Province  of 
Ontario,  succeeded  fully  in  the  method  which  we  here  give 
and  which  is  now  recommended  by  all  authorities,  ^-ith  slight 
variations.  Mr.  N.  E.  France,  for  a  long  tim.e  inspector  of 
apiaries  for  Wisconsin  and  former  General  Manager  of  the 
National  Beekeepers'  Association,  who  has  had  a  m^ost  exten- 
sive experience  in  the  matter  of  foul-brood,  gave  the  method 
in  the  following  words : 

McEvoy  treatm.ent:  "In  the  honey  season,  when  the  bees 
are  gathering  honey  freely,  rem.ove  the  combs  in  the  evening 
and  shake  the  bees  into  their  own  hives;  give  them  frames  with 
comb-foundation  starters  and  let  them  build  comb  for  four 
days.  The  bees  will  m.ake  the  starters  into  comb  during  the 
four  days  and  store  the  diseased  honey  in  them,  which  they 
took  with  them  from  the  old  comb.  Then  in  the  evening  of  the 
fourth  day  take  out  the  new  comb  and  give  them  comb  founda- 
tion (full  sheets)  to  work  out,  and  then  the  cure  will  be  com- 
plete. By  this  method  of  treatm.ent  all  the  tainted  honey  is 
removed  from  the  bees  before  the  full  sheets  of  foundation  are 
worked  out.  All  the  old  foul-brood  com-bs  must  be  burned  or 
carefully  made  into  wax  after  they  are  removed  from  the  hives, 
and  all  the  new  combs  made  out  of  the  starters  during  the  four 
days  must  be  burned  or  made  into  wax  on  account  of  the 


Plx\.te  2( 


EDOUAPvD  BERTRAND, 

Author  of  '■'■Conduite  clu  Rucher.'" 

Former  publisher  of  the  "Ueuue  Internationale  D' Apiculture."' 

This  writer  is"  mentioned  pages  114,   146,  420,  474,  476,  477,  478,  479, 
485,  486,   487,   530. 


FOUL-BROOD.  479 

diseased  honey  that  may  be  stored  in  them.  All  the  curing 
or  treating  of  the  colonies  should  be  done  in  the  evening,  so  as 
not  to  have  any  robbing,  or  cause  any  of  the  bees  from  the 
diseased  colonies  to  mix  and  go  with  healthy  colonies.  By 
doing  all  the  work  in  the  evening  it  gives  the  bees  a  chance 
to  settle  down  nicely  before  morning  and  then  there  is  no 
confusion  or  trouble. 

"All  the  difference  from  the  McEvoy  treatment  that  I  prac- 
tice, I  dig  a  pit  on  the  level  ground  near  the  diseased  apiarj% 
and  after  getting  a  fire  in  the  pit,  such  diseased  combs,  frames, 
etc.,  as  are  to  be  burned  are  burned  in  this  pit  in  the  evening 
and  then  the  fresh  earth  from  the  pit  returned  to  cover  all  from 

sight I  also  cage  the  queens  while  the  bees  are  on  the 

strips  of  foundation." — (N".  E.  France,  in  Bulletin  No.  2, 
Wisconsin  Bee-Keeping.) 

The  above  method  is  called  the  starvation  method.  That 
is  to  say,  the  bees  are  transferred  and  forced  to  build  comb 
until  they  have  used  up  all  of  the  honey  they  had  in  their 
stomachs  from  the  diseased  hive. 

This  method  is  based  on  the  theory,  quite  well  proven,  that 
honey  is  the  main  transmitter  of  the  disease,  in  spite  of  Cheshires 
conclusions.  Although  the  spores  of  the  bacillus  may  not  be 
very  numerous  in  the  honey,  they  are  there  in  the  very  best 
position  to  spread  the  disease,  since  out  of  the  honey  and  pollen 
is  made  the  food  which  goes  to  the  larv^a  and  it  is  the  larva 
which  suffers  from  the  disease,  in  most  cases.  However, 
according  to  the  bacteriologists  who  have  made  a  study  of 
the  matter,  the  bacillus  may  also  be  found  in  the  organs  of 
the  bees  and  of  the  queen,  and  some  even  assert  that 
bees  and  queens  (796)  have  been  killed  by  the  disease. 
McEvoy  asserts  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  disinfect 
the  hives  that  have  contained  the  diseased  colonies.  In 
this  he  is  sustained  by  many  others,  but  in  very  virulent  cases 
we  believe  it  is  advisable  to  do  it.  Although  the  Bertrand- 
Cowan  method  has  been  used  successfully  we  beUeve  that 
the  destruction  of  the  combs  of  the  diseased  colonies  mil 
prove  most  effective.  Such  combs  as  contain  brood  should 
be  burnt  up,  but  those  that  contain  no  brood  may  as  well 
be     made     into     wax     (858-862).     Care     should     be     taken 


480  DISEASES    OF    BEES. 

when  either  honey  or  beeswax  is  heated  to  kill  the  germs  of 
foul-brood — to  keep  the  liquid  at  the  boiling  point  for  a  period 
of  about  15  minutes.  Tests  made  by  Dr.  G.  F.  'VMiite,  the 
bacteriologist  whose  studies  have  caused  such  advance  in  the 
knowledge  concerning  bee  diseases,  show  that  from  10  to  15 
minutes  of  boiling  is  required  to  destroy  the  germs.  (Bulletin 
of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Xo.  92.) 

793.  TREATMENT  OF  BACILLUS  PLUTON  OR 
EUROPEAN  FOUL-BROOD.  This  was  customarily  treated 
like  American  foul-brood,  by  removing  all  the  combs  containing 
honey  or  brood.  But  in  1905,  E.  W.  Alexander  of  New  York 
State,  who  had  much  trouble  Tvith  this  disease,  found  out  that 
remo^dng  the  queen  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  returning 
her  or  preferably  giving  the  bees  another  of  Italian  stock  at 
the  end  of  10  to  22  days,  or  sometimes  allowing  them  to  rear 
another  from  her  brood,  usually  conquered  the  disease.  This 
indicates  that  the  contagion  is  not  so  serious  as  that  of  bacillus 
larvae.  Indeed,  the  most  apparent  point  in  the  ease  'w'ith 
which  the  cure  may  be  performed  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  dead 
larva  does  not  become  liquefied,  but  remains  usually'  whole  and 
may  be  carried  out  by  the  bees,  who  even  suck  the  juices  of 
the  very  young  larvae  when  they  die,  as  noted  by  Dr.  C.  C. 
MiUer,  who  also  fought  this  trouble  in  his  apiary.  So  the  bees 
clean  up  the  cells  and  burnish  them,  if  the  disease  is  not  too 
far  advanced.  Whenever  all  the  diseased  brood  has  disappeared 
the  hive  is  judged  safe  for  a  new  queen.  Italian  bees  have  the 
reputation  of  being  much  more  immune  to  European  foul- 
brood  than  the  common  blacks  and  it  is  always  recommended 
to  introduce  a  queen  of  this  race. 

794.  It  must  be  noted  that,  although  this  disease  appears 
ntuch  less  difficult  to  cure  and  less  contagious  than  American 
foul-brood  or  bacillus  larvae,  yet  it  is  much  more  persistent, 
coming  back  again  and  again  when  the  disease  is  thought  to 
have  entirely  disappeared.  In  numerous  instances,  entire 
apiaries  have  been  depopulated  by  it.  It  should  be  closely 
watched.     The   number   of    days   during   which    the   colonies 


FOUL-BROOD.  481 

should  be  kept  queenless  depends  upon  its  virulence.  In  mild 
cases,  a  period  of  ten  days  of  queenlessness  has  proven  sufficient, 
■v^'hile  in  very  bad  cases,  it  has  been  necessary  to  keep  a  colony 
queenless  until  every  cell  of  brood  was  hatched. 

795.  In  the  treatment  of  either  American  or  European  foul- 
brood,  it  is  useless  to  treat  ^^eak  colonies,  or  colonies  that 
have  become  thoroughly  infected.  In  extreme  cases  several  of 
the  diseased  colonies  may  be  united  together  before  or  during 
treatment.  Weak  colonies  not  only  neglect  their  brood,  but 
run  the  risk  of  being  robbed,  which  would  doubtless  give  the 
disease  to  the  robbing  colonies. 

796.  That  queens  may  transmit  the  disease  as  stated  (792) 
has  been  proven  by  ]\Iaurice  Dadant  who,  in  the  treatment  of 
European  foul-brood,  tried  the  experiment  of  gi\'ing  queens  from 
diseased  colonies  to  entirely  healthy  hives,  with  the  result  of 
transmitting  the  disease  in  each  case.  But  this  may  not  be 
an  invariable  occurrence,  as  several  apiarists  reported  ha\-ing 
used  the  queens  of  diseased  colonies  without  transmitting  the 
contagion.  Cheshire  stated  having  found  baciUi  within  the 
ovaries  of  queens  of  diseased  colonies.  Possibly  the  condition 
of  the  colony  and  its  strength  have  much  to  do  with  the  result. 
In  unfavorable  conditions,  queens  may  transmit  the  disease. 

797.  Many  inspectors  and  experienced  apiarists  assert  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  disinfect  the  hives  in  either  disease;  that 
the  removal  of  the  combs  containing  honey  and  depriving  of 
the  bees  of  food  is  entirely  sufficient  in  the  treatment  of  American 
foul-brood.  We  beUeve  this  correct  in  European  foul-brood. 
But  in  American  foul-brood  the  disease  is  much  more  positively 
eradicated  if  we  thoroughly  disinfect  e^'ery  part  of  the  hive. 
It  is  not  a  tedious  job.  Some  advise  the  painting  of  coal  oil 
upon  the  inside  of  the  hives,  piUng  them  up  one  upon  another 
and  touching  a  match  to  the  pile,  extinguishing  the  fire  as 
soon  as  the  walls  have  been  singed.  Our  method  is  better,  as 
we  have  had  experience  "w-ith  this  disease  and  have  completely 
eradicated  it,  since  the  previous  edition  of  this  work  was 
published.     Here  it  is: 


482 


DISEASES    OF    BEES. 


798.  Transfer  the  bees  of  a  diseased  colony  to  a  new  hive 
body  as  mentioned  in  paragraph  792,  being  careful  that  none 
of  their  bees  go  to  a  neighboring  colony.  If  necessary  the 
colonies  on  each  side  may  be  covered  T\-ith  a  cloth  during  the 
operr.tion.  Then,  with  a  painter's  or  tinner's  blow-torch,  singe 
every  part  of  that  empty  brood  chamber  and  transfer  the  next 
diseased  colony  into  it. 


AMERICAN  FOUI^BROOD 

From  Farmers'  Bulletin,  Department  of 

Agriculture,  No.  442. 

By  Dr.  E.  F.  Phillips. 


In  this  way  hives  are  not  left  exposed  where  robbers  might 
get  at  a  possible  drop  of  honey  and  carry  the  infection.  But 
they  are  treated  as  fast  as  emptied  and  there  is  no  need  of  a 
large  number  of  new  brood  chambers  to  transfer  the  bees,  if 
we  find  it  necessary  to  transfer  a  large  number  of  colonies. 
Each  hive  is  used  for  the  next  operation. 

799.  It  is  no  longer  considered  necessary  to  remove  the 
combs  containing  honey  from  colonies  suffering  \Mth  European 
foul-brood.  We  are  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  more 
injurious  than  beneficial,  as  the  removal  of  the  comb  disturbs 
the  colonies  greatly  and  weakens  them.  We  have  treated 
entire  apiaries,  for  this  disease,  without  a  recurrence  of  the 
trouble. 


FOtJL-BROOD. 


483 


Of  course,  the  origin  of  these  diseases  is  still  unknown. 
What  brings  them  may  again  bring  them  after  we  have  cured 
the  bees.  The  disease  may  exist  among  other  bees,  "v\dld  bees, 
or  bumble-bees,  and  be  again  transmitted  from  bee-trees  in 
the  woods.  But  the  writer  wishes  to  assert  that  he  kept  bees 
for  over  forty  years  without  seeing  a  single  instance  of  either  of 
these  brood  diseases.  He  has  since  had  thorough  experience 
with  them,  has  cured  them  and  harvested  as  large  crops  of  honey 
as  ever  before.  So  there  is  no  need  to  be  discouraged,  if  we 
find  them  in  our  apiaries.  But,  since  they  are  contagious 
diseases,  we  must  use  the  greatest  precautions  in  keeping  our 
hands  clean  when  going  from  one  hive  to  another  after  treating 
a  diseased  colony.  We  should  carefully  prevent  all  chances 
of  robbing  (667)  and  leave  nothing  exposed  that  has  belonged 
to  a  diseased  colony,  for  if  but  a  few  spores  escape  and  find 
good  breeding  room,  they  will  soon  spread  the  contagion. 


EUROPEAN  FOUL-BROOD 

From  Farmers'  Bulletin,  Department  of 

Agriculture,  No.  442. 

By  Dr.  E.  F.  Phillips. 


484  DISEASES    OF    BEES. 

Those  who  ha-ve  lived  through  the  trying  days  of  1918, 
when  the  "VTorld  YZar  caire  to  an  end  and  an  unexpected  con- 
tagion called  "Spanish  influenza"  spread  upon  aU  civilized 
countries,  taking  a  toll,  in  spite  of  doctors,  and  destrojdng 
five  or  six  per  cent  of  the  population  of  some  unci\dlized  spots 
can  have  a  faint  idea  of  the  danger  of  any  contagion. 

Laws  have  been  passed  concemin;^  foul-brood,  in  many 
countries  and  in  the  greater  number  of  the  states  of  the  Union, 
but  these  laws  are  of  difficult  enforeem.ent.  Inspectors  of 
apiaries  have  difficulty  in  reaching  every  infected  spot.  When 
they  do  find  them,  it  is  another  diCculty  to  secure  action  on 
the  part  of  every  bee-keeper.  One  man  who  neglects  to  treat 
his  bees  when  they  are  diseased  causes  the  continuance  of  the 
trouble.  So  it  behooves  every  lover  of  apiculture  to  help 
spread  the  information  which  vvill  enable  every  one  to  eradicate 
the  disease. 

The  writer  once  i-isited  apiaries  in  the  mountains  of  the 
West,  where  disease  was  kno^^Ti  to  ex-ist,  in  order  to  become 
acquainted  -wath  its  appearance  and  methods  of  cure.  He 
called  upon  two  bee-keepers  only  three  miles  apart,  the  one 
with  a  thri^dng  apiary,  the  other  with  neglected  colonies.  The 
first  was  constantly  watching  for  disease  and  treating  it  as  soon 
as  it  showed  itself.  The  other  did  the  treating  in  a  half-hearted 
manner  and  indolently  stated  that  "when  a  bee-keeper  has 
found  foul-brood  among  his  bees  he  must  never  expect  to  get 
rid  of  it."  So  this  man  soon  went  out  of  business,  while  the 
other  succeeded. 

An  incident  mentioned  by  a  country  physician,  in  Europe, 
is  to  the  point,  in  the  necessity  for  thoroughly  treating  an 
apiary  where  disease  is  found.  A  laborer  had  come  to  the  old 
doctor  for  an  ointment  to  cure  the  "itch."  He  had  caught  this 
— now  uncommon  and  ever  disgraceful — contagious  skin  disease 
while  working  as  a  harvest  hand  in  the  country.  Directions 
were  given  him  for  using  the  ointment,  and  he  was  told  that 
his  wife  should  anoint  with  this  also,  as  a  preventive.     But 


FOUL-BROOD  485 

the  "woinaii,  who  did  not  have  the  disease,  refused  to  use  it. 
In  two  weeks  afterwards,  the  man  came  back  for  more  ointment. 
He  was  cured  but  his  ^\-ife  had  the  itch  in  her  turn.  The 
doctor  gave  him  some  and  told  him  that  he  should  use  it  too 
or  he  might  catch  the  disease  again;  but  he  did  not  mind  the 
warning,  and  two  weeks  later  he  had  to  call  for  more.  "Well," 
said  the  old  doctor,  "I  hope  that  these  two  experiments  will 
convince  you  of  the  necessity  of  a  thorough  treatment  for  both, 
with  a  disease  that  is  transmitted  so  readily,  by  contact." 

The  case  is  exactly  the  same  ^ith  the  bacillus.  While  we 
are  treating  one  colony,  a  few  spores  may  be  transmitted  to 
a  neighboring  hive,  by  the  contact  of  a  single  bee,  and  the 
disease  is  spread,  unknown  to  us,  while  we  are  congratulating 
ourselves,  in  the  firm  belief  that  we  have  eradicated  it. 

The  difference  in  the  treatment  between  the  two  diseases  is, 
first,  because  in  the  one  case  the  honey  has  proven  to  transmit 
the  germs  of  disease.  Secondly,  in  the  European  foul-brood 
the  assumption  is  that  the  bees  are  able  to  clean  out  all  the 
dead  brood.  Should  they  fail  to  do  so,  or  be  unable  to  clean 
it,  the  treatment  would  fail. 

All  disinfectants  and  antiseptics  are  good,  as  preventives 
and  perhaps  also  as  cure,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
they  cannot  very  readily  reach  to  the  bottom  of  cells  containing 
putrid  or  dried-up  larvae.  The  irregularities  in  the  reports  of 
cure,  some  failing  where  others  succeeded,  may  be  ascribed 
to  differences  in  the  intensity  of  the  disease.  On  this  matter 
Mr.  Bertrand,  in  his  work,  "La  loque  et  son  traitement,"  says: 


"In  countries  that  are  rich  in  melliferous  resources,  where 
bees  have  been  kept  for  years,  and  where,  in  consequence,  foul- 
brood  must  have  been  in  existence  for  a  long  time  and  exists 
in  an  endemic  state,  the  race  has  acquired  a  relative  im^munity, 
a  force  of  resistance  which  diminishes  considerably  the  effects 
of  the  disease  and  permits  of  its  being  more  easily  overcome. 


486  DISEASES    OF    BEES. 

Perhaps,  also,  in  those  regions,  the  virus  of  foul-brood  may 
have  become  weakened,  in  time,  as  has  been  observed  in  the 
virus  of  certain  diseases  affecting  the  human  race.  In  such 
countries,  the  simple  transferring  of  a  colony  of  foul-brood 
bees  into  a  healthy  hive,  seems  sufficient  to  cure  them." 

800.  Foul-brood  is  transmitted  from  one  hive  to  another — 
Uke  Asiatic  cholera  among  men — by  difTerent  means.  Robbing 
(664)  is  probably  one  of  the  main  helps  to  contamination, 
as  the  robber  bees  may  take  the  bacillus  home,  am^ong  their 
hair,  unawares.  Working  bees  m.ay  even  gather  the  scourge 
from  some  sweet-scented  blossom  contaminated  by  pre\'ious 
visitors.  The  transportation,  or  shipping,  of  bees,  from  one 
part  of  the  country  to  another,  is  often  a  means  of  spreading 
the  disease,  and  some  of  our  State  legislatures  have  made  very 
stringent  laws  on  the  subject.  No  contaminated  combs  should 
be  shipped  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another. 

Contagious  diseases  were  once  the  scourge  of  the  land. 
Who  has  not  heard  of  the  plague,  the  dread  disease  of  the 
dark  ages?  According  to  Chambers'  Encyclopedia,  the  plague 
of  1665  destroyed  seventy  thousand  people,  in  London  alone. 
EarUer  still,  in  1348,  according  to  Sismondi,  the  plague  de- 
stroyed three-fifths  of  the  entire  population  of  Europe,  ex- 
tending even  up  into  Iceland.  It  was  during  that  terrible 
scourge  that  the  city  of  Florence  lost  over  one  hundred  thousand 
people.  If  those  dreaded  diseases  are  now  but  little  feared, 
we  owe  it  to  scientific  discoveries.  The  microscope  has  shown 
that  nearly  all  contagious  diseases,  which  men  or  animals  are 
subject  to,  are  caused  by  li\dng  organisms,  and  m.edical  science 
now  teaches  how  they  m^ay  be  avoided  by  inoculation,  or 
other  means.  More  discoveries  are  daily  made,  and  we  can 
hope  that  the  day  is  not  far,  when  the  advancement  of  science 
will  have  put  an  end  to  all  these  ills,  and  the  bacillus  alvei  will 
be  a  thing  of  the  past. 

W.  R.  Howard  of  Texas,  F.  C.  Harrison  of  Ontario,  T.  W. 


I 


M;r 


mm 


Plate  28. 


N.  E.  FRANCE, 

Expert  on  Foul-brood,  holding  a  diseased  comb.     The  line  drawn 
shows  the  direction  of  the  eye  to  detect  the  dried-up  larvae. 

This  writer  is  mentioned  pages  476,  478,  479. 


PICKLED-BROOD.  487 

Cowan  of  England,  N.  E.  France  of  Wisconsin,  Ed.  Bertrand 
of  Switzerland,  and  many  others,  have  carefully  described  the 
disease  in  short  pamphlets,  but  the  most  important  and  useful 
publications  on  the  subject  are  the  Bulletins  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  "The  Control  of  European 
Foul-Brood,"  Bulletin  975  by  Dr.  E.  F.  Phillips;  "The  Bacteria 
of  the  Apiary,"  by  Dr.  G.  F.  W^hite,  Technical  Series  No.  14; 
"The  Brood  Diseases  of  Bees,"  Circular  No.  79,  by  Dr.  E.  F. 
Phillips,  "The  Cause  of  Am.erican  Foul-Brood,"  Circular  No. 
94,  by  Dr.  G.  F.  White,  etc.  These  works  should  be  read  bj^ 
the  student. 

801.  Aside  from  foul-brood,  accidents  may  cause  the  brood 
to  die,  and  even  to  rot  in  the  cells,  without  special  damage  to  the 
bees.  Sudden  and  cold  weather,  in  a  promising  Spring,  when 
the  bees  have  been  spreading  their  brood,  and  are  compelled 
to  leave  a  part  of  it  uncovered;  the  neglect  of  the  apiarist,  or 
his  mismanagement,  in  placing  back  the  brood — after  an 
inspection — out  of  the  reach  of  the  cluster;  or  even  the  suffoca- 
tion of  a  colony  by  heat  (367),  or  by  close  confinement  (368), 
may  cause  the  death  of  the  brood. 

These  accidents  have  none  of  the  malignance  of  foul-brood, 
and  nothing  need  be  done  in  such  occurrences  besides  removing 
the  dead  brood,  and  burying  it  carefully. 

It  is  usually  easy  to  recognize  when  brood  has  been  chilled, 
for  it  dies  evenly  all  at  one  time,  while  deaths  from  disease  are 
always  scattering  at  first,  here  and  there,  in  the  cells. 

A  disease,  much  resembling  foul-brood,  which  has  done 
considerable  damage  among  bees,  but  not  a  contagious  malady, 
first  designated  under  the  name  of  "Pickled  brood"  because  o^ 
the  sour  smell  of  the  dead  brood  was  diagnosed  by  Dr.  White 
under  the  name  of  "Sac-brood,"  United  States  Bureau  of 
Entomology  No.  431." 

This  name  was  given  because  the  dead  larva  when  it  dies 
remains  within  its  skin  as  "v^ithin  a  sack,  and  often  dries  so  as 
to  become  loose  in  the  cell  and  fall  out  when  the  comb  is  inverted 
This  never  happens  in  either  of  the  other  diseases. 


488 


DISEASES    OF    BEES. 


Since  we  have  a  department  of  bee-keeping  in  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology  in  Washington,  we  urge  every  beekeeper  who 
finds  disease  in  the  brood  to  send  an  enquiry,  mentioning  the 
fact,  to  this  Bureau,  and  explicit  instructions  and  directions 
will  be  sent  him. 

Honey  from  diseased  colonies  is  absolutely  harmless  to  human 
beings.  If  it  is  heated  to  the  boiling  pomt  of  water  for  a  few 
minutes,  it  Tvill  be  safe  also  to  feed  the  bees.  The  beeswax 
rendered  from  diseased  comb  is  also  safe. 


SACBROOD 

From  U.  S.  Bulletin,  No.  431. 

By  Dr.  G.  F.  White. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

Enemies  of  Bees. 

802.  The  Bee-Moth  {Tinea  mcllonella)  is  mentioned  by 
Aristotle,  Virgil,  Columella  and  other  ancient  authors,  as 
one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  honey-bee.  Even 
in  the  first  part  of  this  centuiy,  the  bee-writers,  almost  with- 
out exception,  regarded  it  as  the  plague  of  their  apiaries. 


Fig.   214. 

BEE-MOTH, 

Swammerdam  speaks  of  two  species  of  the  bee-moth 
(called  in  his  time  the  "hee-wolf"),  one  much  larger  than 
the  other.  Linnasus  and  Reaumur  also  describe  two  kinds 
—  Tinea  cereana  and  Tinea  mellonella. 

Scientists  do  not  agi'ee  exactly  as  to  these  species,  nor  their 
names,  calling  them,  galleria  cereana,  galleria  alvearia,  tinea 
cerella,  etc. 

The  smaller  moth,  now  denominated  "Achroia  Grisella,"  is 
mentioned  in  the  A  B  C  of  Bee-culture.  Mr.  E.  F.  Phillips 
speaks  of  it  in  Gleanings,  of  October  1,  1905. 

Most  writers  supposed  the  former  to  be  the  male,  and  the 
latter  the  female  of  the  same  species.  The  following  descrip- 
tion is  abridged  from  Dr.  Harris'  Report  on  the  Insects  of 
Massachusettp '. 

803.  "Very  few  of  the  Tin^a  exceed  or  even  equal  it  in  size. 
489 


490  ENEMIES    OF    BEES. 

In  its  adult  state  it  is  a  winged  moth,  or  miller,  measuring,  from 
the  head  to  the  tip  of  the  closed  wings,  from  five-eighths  to 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  its  wings  expand  from 
one  inch  and  one-tenth  to  one  inch  and  four  tenths.  The  fore-wings 
shut  together  flatly  on  the  top  of  the  back,  slope  steeply  down- 
wards at  the  sides,  and  are  turned  up  at  the  end  somewhat  like 
the  tail  of  a  fowl.  The  female  is  much  larger  than  the  male, 
and  much  darker-colored.  There  are  two  broods  of  these  insects 
in  the  course  of  the  year.*  Some  winged  moths  of  the  first 
brood  begin  to  appear  towards  the  end  of  April  or  early  in 
May — earlier  or  later,  according  to  climate  and  season.  Those 
of  the  second  brood  are  more  abundant  in  August;  but  some 
may  be  found  between  these  periods,  and  even  much  later." 

No  writer  with  whom  we  are  acquainted  has  given  such  an 
exact  description  of  the  differences  between  the  sexes,  that 
they  can  always  be  readily  distinguished.  The  wood-cuts 
of  the  moths,  larvae,  and  cocoons,  which  we  present  to  our 
readers,  were  drawn  from  nature,  by  Mr.  M.  M.  Tidd,  of 
Boston,  Mass.,  and  engraved  by  Mr.  D.  T.  Smith,  of  the 
same  city.  Mr.  Tidd  seems  first  to  have 
noticed  that  the  snout  or  palpus  of  the  fe- 
male, projects  so  as  to  resemble  a  beak, 
FEMALE."  while  that  of  the  male  is  vei-y  short. 

While    some   males   are    larger   than    some    females,    and 
some     females    much     lighter-colored    than 
the    average    of    males,    and    occasionally 
some  males  as  dark  as  the  darkest  females, 
Fig.  215.  the  peculiarity  of  the  snout  of  the  female  is 

^^^^-  fjo  marked,  that  she  may  always  he  distin- 

guished at  a  glance. 

804.  These  insects  are  seldom  seen  on  the  wing,  unless 
started  from  their  lurking  places  about  the  hives,  until  to- 
wards dark.     On  cloudy  days,  however,  the  female  may  be 


*  Prof.  Cook  is  of  opinion  (Guide,  page  315)  that  there  may  be  three 
broods  in  a  year  and  we  believe  he  is  correct.  We  have  seen  tbem 
most  numerous  in  hot  October  weather. 


THE    P.EF,-3I0TH.  491 

noticed  endeavoring,  before  sunset,  to  gain  entrance  into  the 
hives. 

"If  disturbed  in  the  daytime."  says  Dr.  Harris,  "they  open 
their  wings  a  little,  and  spring  or  glide  swiftly  away,  so  that 
it  is  very  difl&cult  to  seize  or  hold  them. ' ' 

They  are  surprisingly  agile,  both  on  foot  and  on  the  wing, 
the  motion  of  a  bee  being  very. slow,  in  comparison.  "They 
are,"  says  Reaumur,  "the  most  nimble-footed  creatures  that 
I  know." 

In  the  evening,  they  take  wing,  when  the  bees  are  at  rest, 
and  hover  around  the  hive  till,  having  found  the  door,  they 
go  in  and  lay  their  eggs. 

"It  is  curious,"  says  Huber,  "to  observe  how  artfully  tht 
moth  knows  how  to  profit  by  the  disadvantage  of  the  bees 
which  require  much  light  for  seeing  objects,  and  the  precau 
tions  taken  by  the  latter  in  reconnoitering  and  expelling  si 
dangerous  an  enemy. 

* '  Those  that  are  prevented  from  getting  within  the  hive,  laj 
their  eggs  in  the  cracks  on  the  outside;  and  the  httle  worm-like 
caterpillars  hatched  therefrom,  easily  creep  into  the  hive 
through  the  cracks,  or  gnaw  a  passage  for  themselves  under  the 
edges  of  it." — Dr.  Harris. 

One  afternoon,  about  twenty-five  years  ago,  our  Senior 
saw  a  female  bee-moth  on  the  front  of  an  eke  hive  (278), 
and  noticed  that  she  was  laying  in  the  crack,  between  two 
ekes,  through  which  the  propolis  could  be  seen;  the  ekes  be- 
ing rabbeted  to  received  the  comb-bars,  their  thickness  there 
was  reduced  to  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch. 

The  moth  laid  about  ten  eggs,  then  walked  about,  seem- 
ing satisfied  with  her  work,  and  came  back  to  laj'  about  the 
same  number,  repeating  the  manoeuver  several  times. 

This  shows  that  moths  may  lay  eggs  in  the  hive  from  the 
outside,  and  that  propolis  is  a  food  for  their  just-hatched 
larvae.     One  of  our  objects,  in  presenting  the  strip  around 


492 


ENEMIES    OF    BEES. 


the  hive  to  support  the  cap    (fig.   72),  and  i)i   incasing  the 
bottom  (34:2),  was  to  hinder  the  moth. 

805.  "As  soon  as  hatched,  the  worm  encloses  itself  in  a  case 
of  white  silk,  which  it  spins  around  its  body;  at  first  it  is  like  a 
mere  thread,  but  gradually  increases  in  size,  and,  during  its 
growth,  feeds  upon  the  cells  around  it,  for  which  purpose  it  has 
only  to  put  forth  its  head,  and  find  its  wants  supplied.     It  de- 


Fig.  216. 

LARVA    AND    MOTH    AFTE'l    BARBO. 


MAGNIFIED. 


vours  its  food  with  great  avidity,  and,  consequently,  increases 
so  much  in  bulk,  that  its  gallery  soon  becomes  too  short  and 
narrow,  and  the  creature  is  obliged  to  thrust  itself  forward 
and  lengthen  the  gallery,  as  well  to  obtain  more  room  as  to 
procure  an  additional  supply  of  food.  Its  augmented  size  ex- 
posing it  to  attacks  from  surrounding  foes,  the  wary  insect 
fortifies  its  new  abode  with  additional  strength  and  thickness, 
by  blending  with  the  filaments  of  its  silken  covering  a  mixture 
of  wax  and  its  own  excrement,  for  the  external  barrier  of  a 
new  gallery,*  the  interior  and  partitions  of  which  are  lined 
with  a  smooth  surface  of  white  silk,  which  admits  the  occa- 
sional movements  of  the  insects,  without  injury  to  its  delicate 
texture. 


*  This  representation  of  the  web,  or  gdllery  of  the  worm,  was  copied 
from  Swammerdam. 


THE    BEE-MOTK.  493 

**In  performing  these  operations,  the  insect  might  be  ex- 
pected to  meet  with  opposition  from  the  bees,  and  to  be  grad- 
ually rendered  more  assailable  as  it  advanced  in  age.  It  never, 
however,  exposes  any  part  but  its  head  and  neck,  both  of 
which  are  covered  with  stout  helmets,  or  scales,  impenetrable 
to  the  sting  of  a  bee,  as  is  the  composition  of  the  galleries  that 
surround  it.'' — Bevan. 


Fig.  217. 

GALLERY    OF    MOTH    WORM. 

80G,  The  worm  is  here  given  of  full  size,  and  with  all  its 
peculiarities.  The  scaly  head  is  shown  in  one  of  the  worms; 
while  the  three  pairs  of  claw-like  fore  legs,  and  the  five 
pairs  of  hind  ones,  are  delineated.  The  tail  is  also  furnished 
with  two  of  these  leg's.  The  breathing-  holes  are  seen  on  the 
back. 


"^m^^ 


Fig.   218. 

THE    WORMS. 

80*7.  Wax  is  the  chief  food  of  these  worms,  but  as  Dr. 
Donhoft'  says:  "Larvae  fed  exclusively  on  pure  wax  will 
die,  wax  being  a  non-nitrogenous  (221)  substance,  and  not 
furnishing  the  aliment  required  for  their  perfect  develop- 
ment"; and  his  statement  agi-ees  with  the  fact  that  their 
larvae  prefer  the  brood-combs,  which  are  lined  with  the  skins 
cast  away  by  the  bee-larvae  (16'S'),  and  which,  in  conse- 
quence, are  more  liable  to  be  devoured  than  the  new  ones. 
In  fact,  they  eat  pollen  and  propolis,  and  while  making  their 


494 


ENEMIES    OF    BEES. 


cocoons,  they  even  seem  to  relish  woody  fibre,  for  they  often 
eat  into  the  wood  of  the  frames  or  of  the  hives  in  which  they 
are  allowed  to  propagate,  while  comb-fomidation  remains 
almost  untouched  hv  them. 


Fig.  219. 

COCOO.VS  SPUN  BY  LARVAE  OF  BEE-MOTHS. 


808.  When  obliged  to  steal  their  living  among  a  strong 
colony  of  bees,  they  seldom  fare  well  enough  to  reach  the 
size  which   they  attain   when   rioting  at  pleasure  among  the 


THE    EEE-AIOTH.  495 

full  combs  of  a  discouraged  population.  In  about  three 
weeks,  the  lai'\"8e  stop  eating',  and  seek  a  suitable  place  for 
encasing  themselves  in  their  silky  shroud.  In  hives  where 
they  reign  unmolested,  almost  any  place  will  answer  their 
purpose,  and  they  often  pile  their  cocoons  upon  one  another, 
or  join  them  together  in  long  rows.  They  sometimes  oc- 
cupy the  emptj'  combs,  so  that  their  cocoons  resemble  the 
capping  of  the  honey-cells.  In  Fig.  219,  Mr.  Tidd  has  given 
a  drawing,  accurate  in  size  and  foi-m,  of  a  curious  instance 
of  this  kind.  The  black  spots,  resembling  grains  of  g-un- 
powder,  are  the  excrements  of  the  worms. 

If  the  colony  is  strong,  the  worm  runs  a  dangerous  gaunt- 
let, as  it  passes,  in  searcli  of  some  crevice,  through  the  ranks 
of  its  enranged  foes.  Its  motions,  however,  are  exceedingly 
quick,  and  it  is  full  of  cunning  devices,  being  able  to  crawl 
backwards,  to  twist  round  on  itself,  to  curl  up  almost  imo  a 
knot,  and  to  flatten  itself  out  like  a  pancake.  If  obliged  to 
leave  (he  hive,  it  gets  under  some  board  or  concealed  crack, 
spins  its  cocoon,  and  patiently  awaits  its  transformation. 

809.  The  time  required  for  the  larvae  to  break  forth  into 
Avinged  insects,  varies  with  the  temperature  to  which  they 
are  exposed,  and  the  season  of  the  year  when  they  spin  their 
cocoons.  We  have  known  them  to  spin  and  hatch  in  ten  or 
eleven  days:  and  they  often  spin  so  late  in  the  Fall,  as  not 
to  emerge  until  the  ensumg  Spring. 

810.  In  Northern  latitudes  where  the  thermometer  ranges 
for  days  and  weeks  below  10  degrees  the  bee-moth-worm  can 
winter  only  in  the  hive  near  the  bee-cluster.  It  is  a  fact 
worthy  of  notice  that  apiaries  that  are  wintered  in  the  cellar 
are  more  annoyed  by  the  moth  during  the  following  Summer 
than  those  that  are  wintered  out  of  doors,  because  none  of 
the  lai-vae  of  the  moth  perish. 

Dr.  Donhoff  says  that  the  lai'\'aB  become  motionless  at  a 
temperature  of  38  to  40  degrees,  and  entirely  torpid  at  a 
lower  temperature.  A  number,  which  he  left  all  Winter  in 
his  summer-house,  re^'ived  in  the  Spring,  and  passed  through 


496  EXEiilES    OF    BEES. 

their    natural    changes.      This    was    in    Germany,    where    the 
Winters  are  milder  than  in  our  Northern  and  Middle  States. 

"If,  when  the  thermometer  stood  at  10  degrees,  I  dissected  a 
chrysalis,  it  was  not  frozen,  but  congealed  immediately  after- 
wards. This  shows  that,  at  so  low  a  temperature,  the  vital 
force  is  sufficient  to  resist  frost.  In  the  hive,  the  chrysalids 
and  larvae,  in  various  stages  of  development,  pass  the  Winter 
in  a  state  of  torpor,  in  corners  and  crevices,  and  among  the 
waste  on  the  bottom-boards.  In  March  or  April,  they  revive, 
and  the  bees  of  strong  colonies  commence  operations  for  dis- 
lodging them. ' ' — Donhoff. 

Some  larvfe  which  Mr.  Langstroth  exposed  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  6  degrees  below  zero,  froze  solid,  and  never  revived. 
Others,  after  remaining  for  eight  hours  iii  a  temperature  of 
about  12  degTees,  seemed,  after  revi\'ing,  to  remain  for  weeks 
in  a  crippled  condition. 

* '  The  eggs  of  the  bee-moth  are  perfectly  round,  and  very 
small,  being  only  about  one-eighth  of  a  line  in  diameter.  In 
the  ducts  of  the  ovarium,  they  are  ranged  together  in  the  form 
of  a  rosary.  They  are  not  developed  consecutively,  like  those 
of  the  queen  bee,  but  are  found  in  the  ducts,  fully  and  per- 
fectly formed,  a  few  days  after  the  female  moth  emerges  from 
the  cocoon.  She  deposits  them,  usually,  in  little  clusters  on  the 
combs.  If  we  wish  to  witness  the  discharge  of  the  eggs,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  seize  a  female  moth,  two  or  three  days  old, 
with  finger  and  thumb,  by  the  head — she  will  instantly  pro- 
trude her  ovipositor,  and  the  eggs  may  then  be  distinctly  seen 
passing  along  through  the  semi-transparent  duct. 

''Last  Summer  I  reared  a  bee-moth  larva  in  a  small  box.  It 
spun  a  cocoon,  from  which  issued  a  female  moth.  Holding  her 
by  the  head,  I  allowed  her  to  deposit  eggs  on  a  piece  of  honey- 
comb. Three  weeks  afterwards,  I  examined  the  comb,  and 
found  on  it  some  web  and  two  larvae.  The  eggs  were  all  shriv- 
eled and  dried  up,  except  a  few  which  were  perforated,  and 
from  which,  I  suppose,  the  larvae  emerged.  This  appears  to  be 
a  case  of  true  parthenogenesis  in  the  bee-moth." — Translated 
from  Dr.  Donhoff  by  S.  Wagner. 


THE    BEE-MOTH. 


407 


811.  In  Fig.  220,  Mr.  Tidd  has  faithfully  delineated,  and 
Mr.  Smith  skillfully  engraved,  the  black  mass  of  tangled 
webs,  cocoons,  excrements,  and  perforated  combs,  which  may 


Fig.  220. 

WEBS    AND    REMNANTS    OF    COMBS    DESTROYED    BY    MOTHS. 


be  found  in  a  hive  where  the  worms  have   completed  their 
work  of  destruction. 

The  entrance  of  a  moth  into  a  hive  and  the  ravages  com- 
mitted  by  her  progeny,   forcibly  illustrate   the  havoc  which 


498  ENEMIES    OF    DEES. 

vice  often  makes  when  admitted  to  prey  unchecked  on  the 
precious  treasures  of  the  human  heart.  Only  some  tiny  eggs 
are  deposited  by  the  insidious  moth,  which  give  birth  to  very 
innocent-looking  wonns;  but  let  them  once  get  the  control, 
and  the  fragrance*  of  the  honied  dome  is  soon  coiTupted, 
the  hum  of  happy  industiy  stilled,  and  everj'thing  useful  and 
beautiful  ruthlesslj'  destroj-ed. 

As  a  feeble  colony  is  often  unable  to  cover  all  its  combs, 
the  outside  ones  may  become  filled  with  the  eggs  of  the 
moth.  The  discouraged  aspect  of  the  bees  soon  indicates  that 
there  is  trouble  of  some  kind  within,  and  the  bottom-board 
will  be  covered  with  pieces  of  bee-bread  mixed  with  the 
excrement  of  the  worms. 

If  a  feeble  colony  cannot  he  strengthened  so  as  to  protect 
its  empty  combs,  the  careful  bee-keeper  will  take  them  away 
until  the  bees  are  numerous  enough  to  need  them. 

S12.  Combs  having  no  brood,  from  dead  colonies,  or  sur- 
plus combs,  with  or  without  honey,  should  be  smoked  with 
the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  to  kill  the  eggs  or  wonns  ol 
the  moth,  when  kept  from  the  bees  in  the  months  of  June, 
July,  August,  and  September.  The  box,  hive,  or  room  in 
which  they  are  kept  should  be  tightly  closed  to  prevent  the 
gas  from  escapmg  till  it  has  done  its  work.  In  smoking  comb- 
honey  ill  a  room,  the  sulphur  may  be  placed  on  hot  coals  in 
a  dish,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  of  it, 
as  the  gas  has  the  effect  of  turning  the  propolis  to  a  greenish 
color,  quite  damaging  to  the  looks  of  the  beautiful  sections. 
Enough  smoke  to  kill  the  flies,  in  a  room,  will  be  found  suf- 
ficient. Dry  combs  kept  over  Winter  in  a  well-closed  room 
without  a  fire,  are  not  in  danger  of  the  moth  the  following 
Summer,  unless  they  are  in  some  manner  exposed.  Combs, 
in  which  there  have  been  moths,  should  be  examined  occa- 
sionally, to  be  smoked  again  if  any  worms  are  found. 

Bee-keepers  also  use  bi-sulphide  of  carbon,  poured  on  a 
rag  or  in  a  saucer  and  enclosed  within  the  hive  or  box,  but 

*  The  odor  of  the  moth   and    larvje   is  very  offensive. 


THE    BEE-MOTH.  499 

sulphur  fumes  is  a  less  expensive  remedy,  though  a  little 
more  troublesome.  Bi-sulphide  of  carbon  is  an  evaporating 
explosive  substance,  which  must  be  handled  with  care,  but  its 
evapoi'ation  within  a  closed  box  is  sufficient  to  destroy  all 
living  insects;  a  tablespoonful  is  enough  for  the  combs  of  a 
hive.  Sulphur  or  brimstone  may  be  used  by  first  making  it 
into  wicks;  it  is  melted  over  a  slow  fire  and  strips  or  rags 
dipped  into  the  liquid.  These  strips,  when  coated  with  brim- 
stone, may  be  used  by  cutting  them  into  pieces  of  the  re- 
quired size  for  each  operation. 

A  bee-keeper  of  Switzerland,  Mr.  Castellaz,  keeps  his  combs 
in  a  closed  box,  in  which  he  places  some  lumps  of  camphor. 
He  says  that  bees  accept  these  combs,  even  when  impreg- 
nated with  the  odor  of  camphor. 

813.  Italian  bees,  unless  exceedingly  weak  and  queenless, 
will  defend  a  large  number  of  combs  against  moths.  One 
of  our  neighbors,  who  had,  occasionally,  helped  us  in  the 
apiarj^,  after  witnessing  our  success  in  bee  culture,  bought 
a  colony  of  Italian  bees  and  divided  it  into  three  swarms, 
mthout  regard  to  the  scantiness  of  the  crop.  His  swarms 
having  dwindled  to  naught,  he  returned  their  combs  to  the 
impoverished  colony,  whose  population  was  miable  to  cover 
more  than  two  or  three  combs.  But  the  returned  combs  had 
not  been  protected  against  moths,  which  hatched  so  numerous 
that  our  neighbor,  surprised  to  see  about  as  many  moths  as 
bees  going  out  of  the  hive,  came  to  us  for  advice.  On  open- 
ing the  hive,  we  found  three  combs  of  brood  crowded  with 
bees,  and  seven  others  that  were  a  perfect  mass  of  webs, 
spotted  with  excrements.  The  bees  were  all  on  their  combs 
and  the  moths  on  theirs;  not  one  worm  could  be  found  on 
either  of  the  three  combs,  protected  by  the  Italians.  Both 
populations,  the  one  of  bees,  the  other  of  moths,  seemed  to 
dwell  liarmoniously  near  each  other. 

814.  The  most  fmitful  cause  of  the  ravages  of  the  moth 
still  remains  to  be  described.  If  a  colony  becomes  hopelessly 
queenless    (499),    it    must,   unless   otherwise    destroyed,    in* 


500  ENEMIES    OF    BEES. 

evitdbly  fall  a  prey  to  the  hee-moth.  By  watching,  in  glass 
hives,  tlie  proceedings  of  colonies  purposely  made  queenless, 
we  have  ascertained  that  they  make  little  or  no  resistance  to 
her  entrance,  and  allow  her  to  lay  her  eggs  where  she  pleases. 
The  worms,  after  hatching,  appear  to  have  their  own  way, 
and  are  even  more  at  home  than  the  dispirited  bees. 

How  worthless,  then,  to  a  hopelessly  queenless  colony,  aro 
all  the  traps  and  other  devices  Avhieh,  formerly,  have  been 
so  much  relied  upon.  Any  passage  which  admits  a  bee  is 
large  enough  for  the  moth,  and  if  a  single  female  enters 
such  a  hive,  she  may  lay  eggs  enough  to  destroy  it,  however 
strong.  Under  a  low  estimate,  she  would  lay,  at  least,  two 
hundred  eggs  in  the  hive,  and  the  second  generation  will  count 
by  thousands,  while  those  of  the  third  will  exceed  a  million. 

In  the  Ohio  Cultivator  for  1849,  page  185,  Micajah  T. 
Johnson  saj^s:  — "One  thing  is  certain— if  bees,  from  any 
cause,  should  lose  their  queen,  and  not  have  the  means  in 
their  power  of  raising  another,  the  miller  and  the  worms 
soon  take  possession.  I  believe  no  hive  is  destroyed  by  worms 
ivhile  an  efficient  queen  remains  in  it" 

This  seems  to  be  the  earliest  published  notice  of  this  im- 
portant fact  by  any  American  observer. 

It  is  certain  that  a  queenless  hive  seldom  maintains  a  guard 
at  the  entrance  after  night,  and  does  not  fill  the  air  with  the 
pleasant  voice  of  happy  industry.  Even  to  our  dull  ears,  the 
difference  between  the  hum  of  a  prosperous  hive  and  the  un- 
happy note  of  a  despairing  one  is  often  sufficiently  obvious; 
may  it  not  be  even  more  so  to  the  acute  senses  of  the  provi- 
dent mother-moth  *? 

Her  unerring  sagacity  resembles  the  instinct  by  Avhich  birds 
that  prey  upon  carrion,  single  ovit  from  the  herd  a  diseased 
animal,  hovering  over  its  head  with  their  dismal  croakings, 
or  sitting  in  ill-omened  flocks  on  the  surrounding  trees,  watch- 
ing it  as  its  life  ebbs  away,  and  snapping  their  blood-thirsty 
beaks,  impatient  to  tear  out  its  eyes,  just  glazing  in  death, 
and  banquet  on  its  flesh,  still  warm  with  the  blood  of  life. 


THE    BEE-MOTH.  501 

Let  any  fatal  accident  befall  an  animal,  and  bow  soon  will 
you  see  them,—  ' 

"First  a  speck  and  then  a  Vulture, '^ 

speeding,  from  all  quarters  of  the  heavens,  on  their  eager 
flight  to  their  destined  prey,  when  only  a  short  time  before 
not  one  could  be  perceived. 

^ATien  a  colony  becomes  hopelessly  queenless,  even  should 
the  bees  retain  their  wonted  zeal  in  gathering  stores  and  de- 
fending themselves  against  the  moth,  they  must  as  eertamly 
perish  as  a  carcass  must  decay,  even  if  it  is  not  assailed  by 
filthy  ilies  and  ravenous  worms.  Occasionally,  after  the  death 
of  the  bees,  large  stores  of  honey  are  found  in  their  hives. 
Such  instances,  however,  are  rare,  for  a  motherless  hive  is 
almost  always  assaulted  by  stronger  colonies,  which,  seeming 
to  have  an  instinctive  knowledge  of  its  orphanage,  hasten  to 
take  possession  of  its  spoils;  or,  if  it  escape  the  Scylla  of 
these  pitiless  plunderers,  it  is  dashed  upon  a  more  merciless 
Charybdis,  when  the  miscreant  moths  find  out  its  destitution. 

815.  The  introduction  of  movable-frame  hives  and  Italian 
bees,  with  the  new  system  of  management,  has  done  away 
with  the  fear  of  the  moth.  It  is  no  longer  common  to  hear 
bee-keepers  speak  of  having  "good  luck"  or  "bad  luck"  with 
their  bees;  as  bees  are  now  managed,  success  or  failure  never 
depends  on  what  is  called  "luck." 

To  one  acquainted  with  the  habits  of  the  moth,  the  bee- 
keeper ivho  is  constantly  lamenting  its  ravages,  seems  almost 
as  much  deluded  as  a  farmer  would  be,  who,  after  searching 
diligenthj  for  liis  cow,  and  finding  her  nearly  devoured  by 
carrion  worms,  should  denounce  these  worthy  scavengers  as 
the  primary  cause  of  her  untimely  end. 

The  bee-moth  has,  for  thousands  of  years,  supported  itself 
on  the  labors  of  the  bee,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
ihat  it  will  ever  become  exterminated.  In  a  state  of  nature, 
a  queenless  hive,  or  one  whose  inmates  have  died,  being  of  no 


502  ENEMIES    OF    BEES. 

further  account,  the  mission  of  the  moth  is  to  gather  up  its 
fragments,  that  nothing  may  be  lost. 

From  these  remarks,  the  bee-keeper  will  see  the  means  on 
which  he  must  rely,  to  protect  his  hives  from  the  moth. 
Knowing  that  strong  colonies  which  have  a  fertile  queen,  can 
take  care  of  themselves  in  almost  any  kind  of  hive,  he  should 
do  all  he  can  to  keep  them  in  this  condition.  They  will  thus 
do  more  to  defend  themselves  than  if  he  devoted  the  whole 
of  his  time  to  fighting  the  moth.  Inexperienced  bee-keepers, 
who  imagine  that  a  colony  is  nearly  ruined  when  they  find  a 
few  worms,  should  remember  that  almost  eveiy  colony 
(especially  black  bees)  however  strong  or  healthy,  has  some 
of  these  enemies  lurking  about  its  premises. 

It  is  hardly  necessary,  after  the  preceding  remarks,  to  say 
much  upon  the  various  contrivances  to  which  some  resorted 
as  a  safeguard  against  the  bee-moth.  The  idea  that  gauze- 
wire  doors,  to  be  shut  at  dusk  and  opened  again  at  morning, 
can  exclude  the  moth,  will  not  weigh  much  with  those  who 
have  seen  them  on  the  wmg,  in  dull  weather,  long  before  the 
bees  have  ceased  their  work.  Even  if  they  could  be  excluded 
by  such  a  contrivance,  it  would  require,  on  the  part  of  those 
using  it,  a  reg-ularity  almost  akin  to  that  of  the  heavenly 
bodies. 

An  ingenious  device  was  invented  for  dispensing  wdth  such 
close  supervision,  by  governing  the  entrances  of  all  the  hives 
by  a  long  lever-like  hen-roost,  so  that  they  might  be  regu- 
larly closed  by  the  crowing  and  cackling  tribe  when  they  go 
to  rest  at  night,  and  opened  again  when  they  fly  from  their 
perch  to  greet  the  merry  morn.  Alas!  that  so  much  skill 
should  have  been  all  in  vain!  Some  chickens  are  sleepy,  and 
wish  to  retire  before  the  bees  have  completed  their  work,  while 
others,  from  ill-health  or  laziness,  have  no  taste  for  early 
rising,  and  sit  moping  on  their  roost,  long  after  the  cheerful 
sun  has  purpled  the  glowing  East.  Even  if  this  device  could 
entirely  exclude  the  moth,  it  could  not  save  a  colony  which 
has  lost  its  queen.     The  truth  is,  that  such  contrivances  are 


BIRDS.  503 

equivalent  to  the  lock  put  upon  the  stable  door  after  the 
horse  has  been  stolen;  or,  to  attempts  to  banish  the  chill  of 
death  by  warm  covering",  or  artificial  heat. 

The  prudent  bee-keeper,  remembering  that  "prevention  is 
better  than  cure,"  will  take  pains  to  destroy  the  larvae  of  the 
moth  as  early  in  the  season  as  he  can,  while  swarming  his 
bees.  The  destruction  of  a  single  female  worm  may  thus  be 
more  effectual  than  the  slaughter  of  hundreds  at  a  later 
period. 

816.  Mice.  It  seems  almost  incredible  that  such  puny 
animals  as  mice  should  venture  to  invade  a  hive  of  bees;  and 
they  often  slip  in  when  cold  compels  the  bees  to  retreat  from 
the  entrance.  Having  once  gained  admission,  they  build  a 
warm  nest  in  their  comfortable  abode,  eat  up  the  honey  and 
such  bees  as  are  too  much  chilled  to  offer  resistance,*  and  fill 
the  premises  with  such  a  stench,  that  the  bees,  on  the  arrival 
of  warm  weather,  often  abandon  their  polluted  home.  The 
entrance  should  never  be  made  deep  enough  to  allow  mice  to 
pass  (348). 

817.  Birds.  Very  few  birds  are  fond  of  bees.  The 
King-bird  (Tyrarmus  Carolinensls)  which  devours  them  by 
scores,  is  said— when  he  can  have  his  choice— to  eat  only  the 
drones;  but  as  he  catches  bees  on  the  blossoms— which  are 
never  frequented  by  these  fat  and  lazy  gentlemen— the  in- 
dustrious workers  must  often  fall  a  prey  to  his  fatal  snap. 
There  is  good  reason  to  suspect  that  this  gourmand  can  dis- 
tinguish between  an  empty  bee  in  search  of  food,  and  one 
which,  returning  laden  to  its  fragrant  home,  is  in  excellent 
condition  to  glide— already  sweetened— down  his  voracious 
maw. 

818.  The  bee-keepers  of  England  complam  of  the  spar- 
rows, which  they  accuse  of  eating  bees.  If  these  birds  add 
this  mischief  to  so  many  others  of  which  they  are  guilty,  the 
bee-keepers  should  find  some  means  of  getting  rid  of  them. 

*  In  eating  bees,  the  mice  eat  the  head  and  corselet,  but  not  the 
abdomen,   probably  because  of  the   smell  of  the  poison  sack. 


504  ENEMIES    OF    BEES. 

In  the  Vosges  (France)  most  of  the  farmers  suspend  earthen 
pots  to  the  walls  of  their  bams  in  which  the  sparrows  make 
their  nests.  These  jug-shape  pots  are  examined  eveiy  week 
and  the  young  birds  are  killed  as  soon  as  they  are  ready  to 
fly  out,  and  are  put  into  the  frj^ng-pan.  We  have  seen  as 
many  as  five  or  six  dozen  pots  on  the  same  wall,  nearly  all 
filled  with  nests,  for  sparroAvs  raise  many  broods  evei-y  year. 
If— as  in  the  olden  time  of  fables— birds  could  be  moved 
by  human  language,  it  would  be  worth  while  to  post  up,  in 
the  \4cinity  of  our  apiaries,  the  old  Greek  poet's  address  to 
the  swallow: 

* '  Attic  maiden,   honey  fed, 

Chirping  warbler,  bears 't  away 
Thou  the  busy  buzzing  bee, 

To  thy  callow  brood  a  prey? 
Warbler,  thou  a  warbler  seize? 

Winged,  one  with  lovely  wings? 
Guest  thyself  by  Summer  brought, 

Yellow  guests  whom  Summer  bringa? 
Wilt  not  quickly  let  it  drop? 

'Tis  not  fair;   indeed,    'tis  wrong, 
That  the   ceaseless  warbler  should 

Die  by  mouth  of  ceaseless  song." 

819.  No  Apiarist  ought  ever  to  encourage  the  destruction 
of  any  birds,  except  the  too-plentiful  sparrows,  because  of 
their  fondness  for  bees.  Unless  we  can  check  the  custom  of 
destroying,  on  any  pretense,  our  insectivorous  birds,  we  shall 
soon,  not  only  be  deprived  of  their  serial  melody  among  the 
leafy  branches,  but  shall  lament,  more  and  more,  the  increase 
of  insects  from  whose  ravages  nothing  but  these  birds  can 
protect  us.  Let  those  who  can  enjoy  no  music  made  by  these 
Avinged  choristers  of  the  skies,  except  that  of  their  agonizing 
screams  as  they  fall  before  their  well-aimed  weapons,  and 
flutter  out  their  innocent  lives  before  their  heartless  gaze, 
drive  away,  as  far  as  they  please  from  their  cruel  premises, 
all  the  little  birds  that  they  cannot  destroy,  and  they  will, 


BEARS  — BEE-LICE.  506 

eventually,  reap  the  fruits  of  their  folly,  when  the  caterpillars 
weave  their  destroying  webs  over  their  leafless  trees,  and  in- 
sects of  all  kinds  riot  in  glee  on  their  blasted  harvests. 

820.  Tame  chickens  eat  drones,  but  not  workers.  Once 
we  noticed  a  rooster  seemingly  eating  bees  at  the  entrance  of 
a  hive.  The  bees  were  then  killing  their  drones  (192).  On 
approaching  the  hive,  we  saw  him  carefully  pick  out  a  drone 
from  among  the  bees,  shake  off  a  worker-bee  which  had  clung 
to  him,  and  swallow  the  drone.  Young  drones  can  be  fed  to 
chickens,  who  soon  learn  to  eat  them  greedily,  but  if  a 
worker-bee  is  found  among  them  they  will  shake  their  heads 
at  her,  with  a  knowing  look  of  disgust.  Young  ducks,  if  in- 
sufficiently fed,  w^ill  eat  bees,  and  are  often  killed  by  being 
stung  while  swallowing  them. 

821.  Other  enemies.  The  toad  is  a  well-known  de- 
vourer  of  bees.  Sitting,  towards  evening,  under  a  hive,  he 
will  sweep  into  his  mouth,'  with  his  swiftly-darting  tongue, 
many  a  late-returning  bee,  as  it  falls,  heavily  laden,  to  the 
ground;  but  as  he  is  also  a  diligent  consumer  of  various  in- 
jurious insects,  he  can  plead  equal  immunity  with  the  in- 
sectivorous birds. 

It  may  seem  amazing  that  birds  and  toads  can  swallow 
bees  without  being  stung  to  death.  They  seldom,  however, 
meddle  with  any,  except  those  returning  fully  laden  to  their 
hives,  or  such  as,  being  away  from  home,  are  indisposed  to 
resent  an  injuiy.  As  they  are  usually  swallowed  without 
being  crushed,  they  do  not  instinctively  thrust  out  their 
stings,  and  before  they  can  recover  from  their  surprise,  they 
are  safely  entombed. 

822.  Bears  are  exceedingly  fond  of  honey;  and  in  coun- 
tries where  they  abound,  great  precautions  are  needed  to 
prevent  them  from  destroying  the  hives. 

In  that  quaint  but  admirably  common-sense  work,  entitled, 
"The  Feminine  Monarchie,  written  out  of  Experience^  by 
Charles  Butler;  printed  in  the  year  1609"  we  have  an  amus- 
ing adventure,  related  by  a  Muscovite  ambassador  to  Rome ; 


506  ENEMIES    OF    BEES. 

"A  neighbor  of  mine,"  saith  he,  "in  searching  in  the  woods 
for  honey,  slipped  down  into  a  great  hollow  tree,  and  there 
sunk  into  a  lake  of  honey  up  to  the  breast;  where — when  he 
had  stuck  fast  two  days  calling  and  crying  out  in  vain  for 
help,  because  nobody  in  the  meanwhile  came  nigh  that  solitary 
place — at  length,  when  he  was  out  of  all  hope  of  life,  he  was 
strangely  delivered  by  the  means  of  a  great  bear,  which,  com- 
ing hither  about  the  same  business  that  he  did,  and  smelling 
the  honey,  stirred  with  his  striving,  clambered  up  to  the  top 
of  the  tree,  and  then  began  to  lower  himself  dowji,  backwards, 
into  it.  The  man  bethinking  himself,  and  knowing  that  the 
worst  was  but  death,  which  in  that  place  he  was  sure  of,  beclipt 
the  bear  fast  with  both  hands  about  the  loins,  and,  withal, 
made  an  outcry  as  long  as  he  could.  The  bear  being  thus  sud- 
denly affrighted,  what  with  the  handling  and  what  with  the 
noise,  made  up  again  with  all  speed  possible.  The  man  held, 
and  the  bear  pulled,  until,  with  main  force,  he  had  drawn  him 
out  of  the  mire;  and  then,  being  let  go,  away  he  trots,  more 
afraid  than  hurt,  leaving  the  smeared  swain  in  a  joyful  fear.*' 

823.  The  hraula  caeca,  improperly  called  bee-louse,  exists 
in  Italy.  Southern  France  and  other  mild  climates.  Dr. 
Dubini  has  seen  queens  so  completely  covered  with  them,  that 
only  their  legs  could  be  seen.  These  lice,  whose  second  name, 
cocca,  means  blind,  have  beev,  ^ften  fomid  by  us  on  imported 
queens  on  their  arrival.  They  are  so  large  that  they  can 
easily  be  taken  off  the  queen  and  killed.  It  appears  that  they 
can  only  propagate  in  warm  countries,  for  they  exist  in  the 
South  of  Europe  and  are  unknown  either  in  Russia,  or  in 
North  America. 

824.  Small  ants  often  make  their  nests  about  hives,  to 
have  the  benefit  of  their  warmth.  They  are  annoying  to  the 
Apiarist,  but  neither  molest  the  bees  nor  are  molested  by 
them. 

A  sheet  of  tarred  paper  in  the  hive  cover  or  cap  where 
they  usually  congregate  will  drive  them  away,  as  the  smell 
is  unpleasant  to  them.  Salt,  ashes,  or  powdered  sulphur  will 
also  keep  them  away. 

Our  limits  forbid   us  to   speak  of  wasps,  hornets,  milli- 


BEARS  — BEE-LICE.  507 

])edes  (or  wood-lice),  spiders,  libellulas  and  other  enemies 
of  bees.  These  lesser  enemies  are  detailed  at  length  and  in 
a  scientific  manner,  with  engravings,  in  the  work  of  Prof. 
Cook,  "The  Bee-Keeper's  Guide,"  to  which  we  refer  the 
lovers  of  entomological  study.  If  the  Apiarist  keeps  his 
colonies  strong,  they  will  usually  be  their  own  best  protectors, 
for,  unless  they  are  guarded  by  thousands  ready  to  die  in 
their  defense,  they  are  ever  liable  to  fall  a  prey  to  some  of 
their  many  enemies,  who  are  all  agreed  on  this  one  point,  at 
least— that  stolen  honey  is  much  sweeter  than  the  slow  ac- 
cumulations of  patient  industry. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
Honey   Handling. 
Marketing  Honey. 

825.  The  quality  of  honej'  depends  very  little,  if  at  all, 
upon  the  secretions  of  the  bees;  and  hence,  apple  blossom, 
white  driver,  buckwheat,  and  other  varieties  of  honey,  hav? 
each  their  peculiar  flavor,  and  color.  The  difference  between 
the  honey  of  one  blossom,  and  that  of  another,  is  so  great, 
that  persons  unacquainted  with  this  diversity,  when  tasting 
honey  different  from  that  to  which  they  are  accustomed, 
imagine  that  either  the  one  or  the  other  is  adulterated. 

The  most-prized  and  best-flavored  honey  produced  in  this 
country,  is  that  from  white  clover  blossoms  (701).  Bass- 
wood  honey,  if  unmixed  with  any  other  grade,  is  too  strong 
in  taste,  but  a  slight  quantity  of  it  in  clover  honey  makes  a 
delicious  dish.  Both  these  grades,  being  very  white,  sell  more 
readily  than  any  other,  in  the  comb,  excepting  perhaps  al- 
falfa honey  and  the  white  honey  of  the  California  sage.* 

Smart-weed,  or  heartsease,  honey,— which  should  properly 
be  called  knot-weed  or  Persicaria  honej',— is  of  a  pale  j^el- 
low  color  and  veiy  fine  in  flavor.  Asters  produce  honey 
nearly  as  white  as  clover.  Different  grades  of  fall-honey, 
from  Spanish  needles,  golden-rod,  iron-weed,  etc.,  are  of  a 
yellow  color,  and  strong  in  taste.  Buckwheat  honey  is  dark; 
boneset  honey  and  honey  dew  are  the  ugliest  and  poorest 
in  quality,  looking  almost  like  molasses. 

*  The  honey  of  Hymettus,  which  has  been  so  celebrated  from  the  most 
ancient  times,  is  of  a  fair  golden  color.  The  lightest-colored  honey  Is 
by  no  means  always  the  best. 

508 


MARKETING  HONEY.  509 

Some  kinds  of  honey  are  bitter,  and  others  very  unwhole- 
some, being  gathered  from  poisonous  flowers.  The  noxious 
properties  of  honey  gathered  from  poisonous  flowers  would 
seem  to  be  mostly  evaporated  before  it  is  sealed  over  by  the 
bees.  Heating,  however,  expels  them  still  more  effectually, 
for  some  persons  cannot  eat  even  the  best,  when  raw,  with 
impunity.  Well  ripened  honey  is  more  wholesome  than  that 
freshlj^  gathered  by  the  bees.  When  it  is  taken  from  the  bees, 
it  should  be  put  where  it  will  be  safe  from  all  intruders.  The 
little  red  and  the  large  black  ant  are  extravagantly  fond  of  it, 
and  will  not  only  carrj-  off  large  quantities  if  within  their 
reach,  but  many  of  them  will  drown  in  it,  spoil  its  appear- 
ance, and  render  it  unfit  for  use. 


Fig.  221. 

COLORADO    SHIPPING    CASES. 

.From   the    Colorado    Honey   Producers'    Association.  ) 

826.  Comb  honey ^  in  sections  put  up  in  cases  of  12,  IG, 
24,  or  40  sections,  with  glass  on  the  side,  sells  most  readily; 
and  were  it  not  for  the  greater  cost  of  production,  and  the 
difficulty  of  safe  transportation,  this  kind  would  be  raised 
exclusively.  One  objection  to  it,  by  large  producers,  is  that 
it  cannot  alwaj's  be  kept  in  good  shape,  from  one  year  to 
another,  owing  to  its  tendency  to  "sweat." 


510 


HONEY   ILVNDLING. 


Sweating  takes  place  in  comb-honey  which  has  been  sealed 
by  the  bees  before  it  was  fully  ripened  or  evaporated  (744), 
during  a  plentiful  honey  harvest.  The  changes  of  tempera- 
ture in  Spring  and  Summer  cause  a  cei'tain  amount  of  fer- 
mentation in  it,  exactly  as  in  the  housekeepers'  sealed  pre- 
serves, when  not  sufficiently  heated  or  sweetened.  The  result 
is  a  bursting  of  the  cappings,  by  the  pressure  of  the  expand- 
ing honey,  which  runs  out  and  over  the  comb  and  renders  it 
unsalable.      The    same    expansion    sometimes    takes    place    in 


Fig.  222. 

XON-DRIP     FOSTER    CASE. 


granulated  extracted  honey,  accompanied  by  a  slight  fermen- 
tation. 

827.  It  is  also  held,  by  some  leadmg  Apiarists,  that  the 
cells,  although  sealed,  are  not  moisture-proof,  and  that  comb- 
honey  gathers  water  from  the  air,  till  it  overfills  the  cell  and 
escapes  through  its  pores.  For  this  reason  they  keep  their 
comb-honey  in  a  warm  dry  room.  This  is  a  good  thing  to  do 
in  every  case.  Honey  is  hygrometric,  and  whenever  exjDosed, 
gathers  moisture  rapidly,  so  that  when  kept  in  a  damp  place, 


MARKETING    HONEY.  511 

a  few  unsealed  or  damaged  cells  very  readily  overflow,  with 
watery  honey,  that  daubs  everything.  Therefore,  whether 
we  believe  that  the  sealed  cells  are  air-tight  or  not  (262),  we 
should  keep  our  honey  in  a  dry  place  at  all  times. 

To  prevent  the  leaking  honey  in  sections  from  running  out 
of  a  case  and  daubing  other  boxes,  a  sheet  of  strong  manila 
paper  should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  each  case,  with  the 
edges  folded  up  slightly,  say  half  an  inch. 

"The  cases  for  shipping  and  retailing  honey  should  be  light, 
and  glazed  on  one  or  both  sides.  Those  holding  but  one  tier 
are  best.  The  sections  should  rest  on  narrow  strips  of  wood 
yi-inch.  thick,  tacked  to  the  bottom  of  the  case  over  a  sheet 
of  manila  paper.  This  is  to  preserve  the  boxes  from  being 
daubed,  in  case  the  honey  drips. 

"These  cases  should  be  in  readiness  before  the  honey  is 
ready  to  be  taken  off." — (Oliver  Foster.) 

This  style  of  shipping  case  has  been  lately  sold  by  manu- 
facturers under  a  new  name,  "the  non-drip  shipping  case." 
They  should  be  named  the  "Foster  shipping  case." 

828.  "Glazed  sections" — one  glass  on  each  side  of  each 
section — have  been  largely  sold  in  the  East;  but  this  mode 
of  putting  up  honey,  being  very  expensive,  \vall  only  do  for 
fancy  trade.  The  producer  can  best  tell  what  his  trade 
requires. 

Cartons  containing  one  pound  section  and  nicely  labeled 
sell  well  and  are  less  expensive. 

When  shipping  comb-honey  to  the  large  cities,  Mr.  Hutchin- 
son, who  was  a  large  producer,  "WTapped  each  case  separately 
in  paper,  to  protect  it  against  dirt,  dust,  or  coal-smoke,  along 
the  way.  By  this  method  his  cases  arrived  on  the  market,  as 
fresh  and  neat-looking  on  the  outside,  as  when  first  put  up. 

As  the  careful  handling  of  comb-honey  during  shipment  is 
very  important,  it  is  best  to  mark  each  case  with  a  large  label 
or  a  stencil,  bearing  the  words: 


512  HONEY    IiANDLlN(J. 


HONEY  IN  GLASS.     Handle  with  Care. 

Yerj^  small  lots  ought  never  to  be  sent  by  rail,  at  least  until 
we  get  better  railroad  regulations,  concerning  the  handling  of 
goods  in  transit,  than  we  have  at  present. 

Comb-honey  in  large  lots  should  be  shipped  in  large  crates, 
with  handles  at  each  end,  each  crate  containing  about  one 
hundred  pounds  of  honey,  or  about  eight  cases,  of  twenty-four 
sections  each. 

829.  The  barrels  that  we  use  for  extracted  honey  are  oak 
barrels,  which  have  contained  alcohol.  They  are  gunnned  hi- 
side,  with  some  composition,  to  prevent  the  alcohol  from  soak- 
ing through  the  wood,  and  this  gum,  or  glue,  prevents  the 
leakage  of  honey.  Whisky  barrels  are  often  unfit  to  contain 
honey,  for  they  are  usually  charred  on  the  inside,  and  motes 
of  charcoal  fall  into  the  honey  and  spoil  its  appearance.  We 
keep  our  empty  barrels  in  a  diy  place.  As  soon  as  filled,  they 
are  bunged  and  rolled  into  a  cool  and  dry  cellar,  where  they 
remain  until  the  honey  selling  season,  which  begins  in  Sep- 
tember, or  October.  Any  dry  room  will  do,  when  a  dry  cellar 
is  not  at  hand^  but  a  cellar  has  a  more  even  temperature 
when  cold  weather  comes. 

If  the  barrels  are  damp,  when  the  honey  is  put  in,  and  are 
removed  to  a  dry  place  afterwards,  they  will  soon  leak;  for 
honey  does  not  keep  the  wood  from  drying  and  shrinking. 
Honey  barrels,  then,  should  not  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as 
wine  or  cider  barrels;  and  swelling  them,  with  steam,  or  hot 
water,  pre\ious  to  filling  them  Avith  honey,  will  not  be  of  any 
benefit,  unless  they  are  kept  damp  afterwards.  This  is  not  to 
be  thought  of,  for  honey  must  be  kept  dry,  on  account  of  its 
hygrometric  properties.  It  will  absorb  the  moisture  out  of  the 
staves  of  the  barrel  that  contains  it  and  will  become  thin  and 
watery,  and  at  the  same  time,  the  staves,  in  giving  up  their 
juoisture,  will  shrink  and  the  honey  will  leak  out.  Thus  it  is 
easy  to  see  that  none  but  the  best  dry  barrels  will  do. 


MARKETING  HONEY. 


513 


M  1 


.■1-3. -44 


Fig.  223. 

GRADING    HONEY. 

The  Colorado  grading.  No.   1   and  No.  2. 


514  HONEY    HANDLING. 

In  this  connection  the  reader  will  permit  us  to  illustrate  to 
him  the  hygrometric  qualities  of  honey  by  narrating  a  little 
incident.  We  had  received  an  order  for  a  barrel  of  honey,  ' 
to  be  in  the  liquid  state.  As  this  was  midwinter,  all  our  honey 
being  granulated,  a  barrel  was  opened,  the  head  taken  out 
and  the  honey  melted  au  bain-marie  (834).  It  was  imme- 
diately replaced  in  the  barrel,  while  hot,  and  prepared  for 
shipment.  But  it  happened  that  this  barrel  had  been  kept,  for 
some  time  after  granulation  of  the  honey,  in  a  damp  place, 
and  the  wood  was  somewhat  damp.  This  hot  honey  absorbed 
the  moisture  from  the  staves  durmg  the  night  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  the  next  mommg,  the  barrel  was  leakmg  from  ever>' 
joint.  We  have  since  that  time  allowed  honey  to  cool  off 
when  treated  in  this  way,  before  returning  it  to  the  barrel. 
But  usually  when  honey  is  melted,  it  is  at  once  put  up  into 
retail  packages. 

Cheap  barrels  cannot  be  opened  to  remove  the  honey  by 
taking  out  the  head  without  damaging  them,  while  good  iron- 
bound  oak  barrels  will  last  for  years,  and  will  never  leak,  ii 
managed  properly.  To  take  the  head  out,  it  should  be  marked, 
with  a  chisel,  so  as  to  replace  it  aftei-wards  exactly  in  the 
same  position.  A  strong  gimlet  is  screwed  into  the  middle 
of  it,  for  a  handle.  After  the  hoops  have  been  chased  off,  the 
head  can  be  pulled  out  readily,  and  it  is  replaced  in  the  same 
manner,  when  the  barrel  is  empty. 

If  care  and  judgment  were  used  in  these  matters  there  would 
be  but  little  complaint  on  the  part  of  dealers,  about  leaking 
honey  shipped  from  the  apiarist. 

One  of  the  most  popular  packages  for  putting  up  extracted 
honey  and  disposing  of  it  in  a  wholesale  manner  is  the  sixty- 
pound  can,  either  round  or  square.  The  square  cans  are 
boxed,  one  or  two  in  a  case  and  are  easily  piled  in  wagons 
or  cars,  but  the  round  can  with  a  wooden  jacket  has  been 
much  recommended  of  late  by  a  man  of  great  experience  in 
the  production  of  extracted  honey,  Mr.  N.  E.  France.  The 
smaller  packages  for  retail  trade  are  discussed  further  (841), 


MARKKTIXG    HOXEY.  515 

The  honey,  when  put  into  large  tanl^s  to  ripen,  had  better  be 
changed  to  the  retail  package  at  the  next  handling.  But  the 
apiarist  who  extracts,  as  we  do,  at  the  out-apiaries,  will  find 
good  barrels  the  handiest  package  to  bring  a  crop  of  well 
ripened  honej^  home  immediately. 

830.     In  October,  the  honej-  of  the  July  crop  is  all  granu- 
lated, and  that  of  the  September  crop  is  beginning  to  granu- 


Fig.   224. 
THE  STXTT-POUND  HONEY  CAN. 

late.  There  are  many  different  opinions  in  regard  to  the 
causes  of  granulation.  Some  think  that  it  is  effected  by  the 
action  of  light,  but  this  is  certainl}^  a  mistake,  for  our  honey 
only  sees  the  light  when  extracted,  and  is  then  kept  in  the 
dark  until  sold.  We  are  more  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  the 
action  of  cold  air  Avhich  causes  granulation;  for  sealed  comb- 
honey  generally  remains  liquid.  The  extracted  honey,  which 
we  harvest,  always  gi'anulates.  We  have  handled  liquid  honey, 
however,  several  times,  but  we  have  always  found  it  to  be  un- 


51t)  HONEY    KAXDLIXG. 

ripe;  and  have  laid  it  down  as  a  rule  for  ourselves,  that  good 
honey  should  be  granulated  after  November.  We  speak  of 
honey  harvested  in  the  Mississippi  valley ;  such  as  clover,  bass- 
wood,  knot-weed,  golden  rod,  buckwheat,  Spanish-needle,  etc. 

831.  Of  California  honey,  we  can  say  nothing,  having 
never  handled  it.  But  we  have  handled  Louisiana  honey, 
which,  we  were  told,  would  not  granulate  before  a  year,  and 
we  had  scarcely  had  it  three  weeks  in  our  cold  climate,  before 
it  began  to  granulate.  The  onlj^  ripe  honey  which  did  not 
granulate,  was  a  lot  of  Spanish-needle  honey,  which  had  been 
extracted  late  in  November.  It  remained  liquid  until  sold,  a 
month  or  two  later,  and  we  ascribed  its  not  granulating  to  the 
late  harvesting  of  it. 

We  have,  however,  seen  a  few  instances  of  slowly  ripened 
honey  that  did  not  granulate,  although  very  thick  and  rich. 
These  are  exceptions.  If  honey  is  melted  when  granulated 
and  allowed  to  evaporate  a  little,  it  will  be  veiy  slow  to  granu- 
late again. 

832.  Every  bee-keeper  has  noticed  that,  at  times,  honey 
hardens  in  veiy  coarse  and  irregular  granules,  that  look  like 
lumps  of  sugar,  and  have  no  adherence  with  one  another, 
w4th  a  small  amount  of  liquid  honey  interposed  between 
them;  and  that  at  other  times,  the  candying  is  compact,  and 
can  be  compared  to  the  hardening  of  lard. 

The  first  kmd  of  granulation  is  always  produced  in  honey 
harvested,  like  clover  or  basswood,  during  the  warm  months  of 
the  year ;  while  the  soft  candying  is  prevalent  in  the  honey  ex- 
tracted in  the  Fall.  In  France,  coarsely  granulated  honey 
is  held  as  less  valuable  than  the  fine  grained  honey,  and 
there  is  a  good  reason  for  this  preference,  for  the  coarsely 
granulated  honey  cannot  be  kept  as  well  as  the  fine  grained. 
It  is  evidently  less  evenly  ripened. 

In  this  countiy  also,  coarsely  granulated  honey  sells  with 
less  facility— especially  because  many  ignorant  persons  ima- 
gine that  it  has  been  adulterated  with  sugar,  and  that  the 
coarse  grains  are  lumps  of  sugar. 


MARKETING   HONEY.  517 

In  such  honey,  the  liquid  parts  come  to  the  surface,  and 
absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  are  very  apt  to  become  acid 
by  fermenting.  But,  even  after  granulation,  it  can  easily  be 
brought  to  a  fine  grain  by  melting  it  and  exposing  it  to  the 
cold  of  our  Northern  Winters.  Basswood  honey  would  even 
be  benefited  by  this,  as  it  would  lose  a  little  of  its  too  strong 
flavor. 

Basswood  and  clover  honey  are  more  apt  to  ferment  than 
aiiy  other  class  of  honey,  even  when  thoroughly  granulated, 
if  they  remain  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  following  Summer, 
and  it  is  advisable  to  keep  these  two  kinds  in  a  cool,  diy 
place  during  the  hot  weather.  A  damp  cellar  would  be  ob- 
jectionable, since  honey  readily  absorbs  moisture  from  the  air. 

833.  Those  bee-keepers  who  will  follow  our  methods,  of 
extracting  (763)  after  the  honey  crop,  will  have  but  little 
trouble  with  honey  fermenting,  even  if  they  have  to  keep  it 
through  the  following  Summer.  If  any  honey  should  fer- 
ment, however,  let  them  not  think  that  it  is  spoiled,  unless 
it  was  really  unripe  and  has  turned  sour.  A  slight  amount  ol 
alcoholic  ferment  can  be  evaporated  readily  by  melting  the 
honey  over  water,  when  the  ferment  escapes  in  the  shape  of 
foam.  As  this  fermentation  is  caused  by  the  presence  cf  un- 
ripe honey,  some  of  our  friends  succeed  in  entirely  preventing 
it  by  melting  all  their  honey  immediateJy  after  gra).ulation. 
The  melting  evaporates  all  excess  of  moisture  contained  in  it. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Muth,  whose  large  experience  in  handling  honey 
made  him  a  high  authority,  ripened  all  his  honey  by  keeping 
it  in  open  vessels  in  a  diy  and  ventilated  room,  for  a  moiith 
or  two  after  extracting.  Many  noted  Apiarists  are  now  fol- 
lowing that  method. 

834.  Melting  Honey.  Honey  should  never  be  placed 
directly  over  a  fire  to  melt  it.  The  least  over-heating  will 
evaporate  its  essential  oils,  and  give  it  the  burnt  taste  of  dark 
molasses  instead.  It  should  be  put  m  a  tin  or  copper  vessel, 
and  this  in  another  large  vessel  containing  water.  This  heat- 
ing au   hain-marie,   as  the  French   call  it,  is  resorted   to  by 


518  HONEY    IIAXDLIX(J. 

cooks,  confectioners  and  others,  whenever  there  is  any  danger 
of  scorching  the  substance  heated. 

In  the  case  of  honey,  the  water  should  not  even  be  allowed 
to  boil. 

835.  The  increase  of  honey  production  has  been  so  great, 
in  a  few  years,  that  the  consumption  has  barely  kept  pace 
with  it.  But  it  will  soon  take  its  rank  among  necessities,  like 
butter  or  syrups;  and  change  from  a  luxuiy  to  a  staple. 

836.  Our  first  crops  of  extracted  honey,  w^ere  sold  readily 
at  wholesale,  and  at  good  prices;  for  it  was  then  that  the 
wholesale  dealers  and  manufacturers  w^ere  making  the  largest 
profits,  by  mixing  the  honey,  which  they  bought  from  bee- 
keepers, with  cheap  substances,  like  glucose,  which  kept  the 
honey  from  granulating,  and  by  putting  it  up  in  tumblers, 
with  a  small  piece  of  comb  honey  in  the  center.  This  honey, 
or  rather  mixture  of  honey,  was  sold  by  them  usually  at  lower 
prices  than  they  had  paid  for  the  pure  honey.  But  ready 
sales  in  this  way  did  not  last  long;  for,  after  a  year  or  two, 
the  markets  were  crowded  with  this  drug. 

Should  our  readers  ever  come  across  suspicious-looking 
honey,  they  will  find  the  following  a  cheap  recipe  to  recognize 
adulteration : 

"Put  in  a  small  vial  about  one  ounce  of  the  honey  to  be 
tested,  fill  the  vial  with  pure  cistern  water,  shake  thoroughly 
to  dissolve  the  honey;  then  add  to  the  mixture  about  a  thimble- 
ful of  pure  alcohol.  If  the  honey  is  pure  the  solution  will  re- 
main unchanged,  but  if  adulterated  with  glucose,  it  will  be 
turbid  and  whitish, 

"This  is  the  means  used  by  the  honey  dealers  of  Paris,  to 
detect  adulterated  honey." — (Annales  de  la  Societe  d 'Apicul- 
ture de  I'Aube.) 

837.  We  have  now  United  States  laws  concerning  the 
adulteration  of  food  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  honey  will 
ever  again  be  sold  that  contains  a  proportion  of  corn  syrup  or 
commercial  glucose.  This  cheap  syrup  should  be  sold  under 
its  own  name.     It  is  of  verv  mferior  value  when  compared 


MARKETING  HONEY.  519 

to  honey  as  it  contains  only  about  twenty-five  to  thirty  per 
cent  of  saccharine  matter. 

False  assertions  have  been  made  at  different  times  concerning 
the  possibility  of  manufacturing  comb  honey,  filling  it  and 
sealing  it  over  by  machinery.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say 
that  this  is  entirely  impossible  and  if  it  ever  became  possible, 
it  would  be  readily  detected,  as  human  hands  could  never 
make  the  variety  of  shapes  that  are  achieved  by  the  bees.  No 
two  combs  are  alike,  when  built  by  the  bees,  even  if  they 
have  been  built  on  comb  foundation. 

**So  widespread  was  this  falsehood,  that  in  our  journal  of 
November  1,  1885,  page  738,  I  offered  $1,000  to  anybody  who 
would  tell  me  where  such  spurious  comb-honey  was  made.  No 
one  has  ever  given  the  information,  neither  has  one  ounce  of 
manufactured  comb-honey  ever  been  forthcoming.  It  is  a  me- 
chanical impossibility,  and  will,  in  my  opinion,  always  remain 
so.  *  *  *  I  hardly  need  add,  that  the  above  slanderous  re- 
port in  regard  to  bogus  comb-honey  was  very  damaging  to  the 
bee-keeping  industry.  It  probably  obtained  wider  credence 
because  one  Prof.  Wiley,  some  years  ago,  started  it  by  what  he 
termed  a  'scientific  pleasantry.'  " — A.  I.  Eoot. 

838.  The  granulation  of  honey  was  objected  to  by  many 
consumers,  at  first,  from  the  prejudiced  idea  that  granulated 
honey  had  been  mixed  with  sugar.  It  has  ceased  to  be  an 
objection,  for,  in  our  neighborhood,  nearly  all  honey  consu- 
mers now  know  that  good  ripe  honey  generally  granulates  in 
cold  weather.  But,  now  and  then,  a  person  is  found  who 
wants  liquid  honey,  or  comb  honey,  thinking  that  no  other  is 
pure. 

We  were  told  that  the  judges  at  an  agricultural  exposition 
refused  to  give  a  premium  to  a  bee-keeper  for  his  honey,  be- 
cause it  was  spoiled  by  granulating.  These  competent  judges 
probably  think  that  water  is  spoiled  by  freezing,  for  granu- 
lated hcaiey  if  carefully  melted  (834),  is  as  good  as  before 
hardening. 

839.  We  have  always  found  an  easy  sale  for  extracted 


520  HONEY    HANDLING. 

honey  among  foreigners— especially  German  or  French;  as 
they  Iiave  been  used  to  granulated  strained  honey,  which  has 
been  produced  for  centuries  in  almost  all  parts  of  Europe. 
Some  of  them  are  so  well  acquainted  with  it,  that  they  prefer 
it  to  the  finest  comb-honey,  saying  that  comb  is  not  made  to 
be  eaten. 

Once,  having  received  a  favor  from  a  French  farmer,  living 
a  short  distance  from  us,  we  selected  a  beautiful  large  comb 
of  nicely  sealed  clover  honey,  while  extracting,  and  sent  it  to 
this  family  after  having  carefully  laid  it  on  a  dish.  Much  to 
our  astonishment,  we  learnt,  a  few  days  after,  that  the  good 
French  housewife  had  put  our  nice  comb  in  a  clean  towel,  care- 
fully pressed  the  honey  out,  and  melted  tlie  wax;  and  besides, 
tliat  she  was  veiy  much  astonished  at  our  having  sent  comb 
honey  to  her,  when  we  had  such  nice  extracted  honey  on 
hand.  The  reader  may  readily  imagine  that  henceforth  we 
never  sent  to  them  anything  but  extracted  honey,  nmch  to 
their  satisfaction  and  ours. 

Every  bee-keeper  who  understands  his  busmess,  should  try 
to  sell  his  honey  when  granulated,  explaining  to  his  customers 
that  adulterated  honey  does  not  granulate,  and  that  granu- 
lation is  the  best  proof  of  purity.  We  have  these  words 
printed  on  all  our  labels. 

840.  To  improve  the  present  prices  of  honey,  which  are 
in  some  cases  lower  than  the  prices  of  second  class  sweets, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  masses  should  be  induced  to  buy  it. 
Thus  far  it  is  an  article  which  few  persons  will  buy  regularly. 
Consumers  will  go  to  the  grocery  for  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  flour, 
meal,  butter,  etc.,  but  very  few  make  it  a  custom  to  buy  honey 
—not  that  they  dislike  it,  for  "what  is  sweeter  than  honey?" 
but  because  they  are  not  used  to  it. 

All  children,  even  in  the  heart  of  our  manufacturing  centers, 
have  heard  of  "honey,"  but  how  many  have  never  tasted  it! 
Why?  Fifty  years  ago  honey  was  thirty  cents  per  jDound. 
Thirty  years  ago  the  very  cheapest  grades  retailed  higher  than 
the  best  sugars.     To-day,  in  many  places,  honey  is  still  re- 


MARKETING   HONEY. 


521 


tailed  at  from  fifteen  to  twenty  cents,  wiiile  sixteen  pounds  of 
the  best  sugar  are  sold  for  a  dollar.  Yet  the  Apiarists  crowd 
it  to  the  markets  at  prices  ranging  as  low  as  three  cents. 
What  is  lacking?  Proper  distribution.  Instead  of  shipping 
our  honey  to  the  cities,  whence  it  will  be  partly  shipped  back 
to  our  village  retailers  after  having  passed  through  the  hands 
of  commission  men,  and  wholesale  merchants,  we  must  culti- 
vate home  consumption.  We  must  show  our  neighbors,  our 
farmers,  our  mechanics,  at  home,  that  our  progressive  meth- 
ods enable  us  to  furnish  to  them  the  sweetest  of  all  sweets,  at 
nearly  as  low  a  price  as  syrups.  The  occasional  depression  of 
the  honey  market  is  but  temporary  and  its  termination  is  only 
a  question  of  time. 

841.  It  is  important,  in  offering  honey,  whether  to  gro- 
cers or  to  consumers,  to  have  it  put  up  in  neat  and  at- 
tractive shape.  Comb-honey  in 
sections  weighing  only  a  pound 
sells  best,  because  it  is,  and  always 
will  be,  a  fancy  article. 

But  in  putting  up  extracted 
honey,  a  one-pound  package  is 
now  too  small.  We  must  encour- 
age a  consumption  in  which  the 
expense  of  packing  will  not  ma- 
terially advance  the  cost,  and  we 
find  that,  owing  to  this  advance 
of  cost,  the  one  or  one  and-a- 
quarter-pound  package  is  less  in 
demand  than  it  was  a  few  years 
ago. 

842.  Tin  is  the  cheapest  pack- 
age for  honey,  in  small  quantities. 
Our  favorite  sizes  are  two  and-a- 
half -pound,  five-pound,  and  ten- 
pound  pails.  The  two  and-a-half- 
pound  pail  is  in  great  demand,  and  in  the  Winter  of  1886-7, 


Fig.  225. 

DADANT    HONiiY    PAILS. 


522 


HONEY    HANDLING. 


the  bulk  of  our  crop  of  that  year,  about  24,000  lbs.,  was  sold 
in  this  package,  at  twenty-three  cents  per  pail,  or  about  nine 
cents  per  pound. 

Some  of  our  readers  will  ask  why  we  do  not  put  up  our 
honey  in  these  pails  from  the  first,  instead  of  putting  it  up 
in  barrels.  We  never  do  so,  because  we  do  not  know  what  pro- 
portion of  each  size  will  be  required  by  the  trade;  because 
honey  in  small  cans  occupies  too  much  room,  and  is  not  so 


Fig.  226. 

THE    FRICTION-TOP    HONEY    PAIL, 


easily  moved  out  of  the  way;  and  especially  because  we  keep 
honey  from  the  best  seasons  for  the  years  of  poorer  crop,  and 
it  keeps  best  in  barrels.  We  have  kept  honey  in  pails  for  two 
years  or  more,  but  the  pail  often  rusts  on  the  outside,  and 
becomes  unsalable.  The  objections  above  given  are  very 
weighty,  in  extensive  production,  when  tens  of  thousands  of 
pounds    have    to    be    cared    for,    but    the    small    producer 


MARKETING  HONEY.  523 

may,  if  he  chooses,  put  up  his  honej',  at  once,  in  retail  pack- 
ages. 

843.  To  stop  the  accidental  leakage  of  honey  in  pails — 
for,  owing  to  its  weight,  it  will  leak  through  seams  that  are 
water-tight— we  simply  rub  over  the  leaky  spot  a  little  tallow- 
wax,  prepared  by  melting  beeswax  with  tallow  or  lard,  in 
varied  quantities. 

A  friction-top  pail  is  now  manufactured  by  the  Tin  Trust 
which  is  sufficiently  honey-tight  to  fulfill  e\ery  purpose.  These 
pails  are  in  many  instances  taking  the  place  of  the  pail  origi- 
nated by  us  and  which  is  for  that  reason  called  the  "Dadant 
pail."  All  kinds  of  packages  are  sold  by  dealers,  and  papers 
or  paper  sacks  are  recommended  for  granulated  honey.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  these  paper  sacks  are  the  veiy  cheapest 
package  for  retailing  honey  to  the  masses,  but  the  amount 
put  up  m  these  must  be  limited  to  the  actual  winter  con- 
sumption, owing  to  their  probable  leakage  when  warm  weather 
comes.     The  sacks  are  generally  coated  with  paraffine. 

A  great  deal  of  honey  is  sold  in  glass  jars,  but  our  objection 
to  them  is  that  granulated  honey  does  not  look  well  in  them, 
and  they  are  more  costly  than  tin.  Hone}^,  in  tin,  can  be  put 
up  gross  weight  and  although  no  one  objects  to  the  weight 
of  the  pail,  this  weight  helps  to  pay  for  its  cost.  Those  who 
use  glass  as  a  honey  package,  melt  the  honey  before  bottling  it. 

For  shipping  honey  in  small  packages,  Mr.  Aug.  Christie, 
a  large  producer  of  Iowa,  puts  it  up  in  soldered  cans.  But 
the  honey  must  be  vers'  ripe,  or  else  must  be  previously  heated, 
for  the  least  fermentation  would  burst  the  can. 

844.  In  every  case  when  honej^  is  sold,  it  should  be  neatly 
labeled  with  the  name  and  address  of  the  producer,  which  is, 
in  itself,  a  guarantee  of  its  qualit5\ 

When  you  go  into  a  strange  grocery,  where  you  are  un- 
known, the  immediate  answer  of  the  grocer,  to  your  mention 
of  honey  is:  "I  don't  want  any  honey;  I  have  no  sale  for  it, 
and  I  don't  like  to  handle  it."  Should  you  then  take  your 
leave  and  go,  there  would  be  but  little  hope  of  increasing  yout 


524  HONEY    HANDLING. 

sales.  You  have  to  study,  and  learn  to  imitate  the  cunning 
and  perseverance  of  tlie  traveling  agent,  and  quietly  talk  it 
out.  You  first  have  to  assure  the  grocer  that  you  only  wish 
to  show  him  your  goods  and  your  prices  at  his  leisure,  and 
that  he  can  then  refuse  to  buy,  if  he  chooses.  You  must 
show  him  why  he  has  no  sale  for  honey.  You  tell  him  that 
pure  honey  is  one  of  the  best  sweets  in  the  world,  to  which 
he  readily  agrees.  You  then  explain  that  honey,  not  being  a 
staple,  his  customers  never  come  on  purpose  to  buy  it,  but 
that  when  they  see  it,  they  are  tempted  to  buy ;  that,  for  this 
reason,  it  should  be  put  up  with  large  and  showy  labels,  and 
l)laced  in  a  conspicuous  position,  so  that  it  will  readily  catch 
the  eye. 

845.  White  honey  in  nice  sections  will  generally  sell  at 
sight,  unless  the  grocer  has  had  some  leakj-  packages,  which 
dripped  honey  on  the  counter,  left  a  sticky  reminiscence  of 
their  presence,  and  attracted  flies  and  bees.  But  if  your  honey 
is  put  up  carefully,  accorduig  to  directions  given,  the  first  sale 
alone  will  be  difficult.  In  selling  extracted  honey  it  may  be 
necessaiy  for  you  to  explain  the  facility  with  which  granu- 
lated honey  may  be  liquefied. 

With  grocers  that  were  miacquainted  with  us,  we  usually 
began  by  supplying  them  with  yellow  honey,  such  as  buck- 
Avheat,  or  heartsease,  or  golden  rod.  This  honey,  strong  in 
flavor,  sells  better  to  the  inexperienced,  who  are  afraid  of 
getting  sugar,  or  glucose.  It  is  only  after  one  or  two  years 
that  we  venture  to  offer  to  such  grocers  our  whitest  clover 
and  bass-wood,  which,  though  of  superior  flavor,  are  objected 
to,  on  account  of  their  veiy  beauty  and  quality.  In  eveiy 
case  we  tiy  to  furnish  S(»me  good  reference  to  the  grocer, 
and  we  give  him  a  full  guarantee  of  satisfaction,  with  an 
agreement  to  take  the  honey  back,  if  it  does  not  prove  alto- 
gether as  we  represent  it.  When  a  dealer  is  well  satisfied 
that  the  merchandise  which  he  sells  is  pure,  his  customers  are 
quite  likely  to  have  confidence  in  it  themselves;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  he  is  in  doubt  as  to  the  quality  and  purity  of 


HONEY  AS   FOOD.  ,      525 

it,  he  will  have  but  little  chance  of  selling  it,  unless  he  'kes 
not  care  for  the  satisfaction  of  his  patrons. 

846.  We  must  therefore  spare  no  pains  to  fully  convince 
our  grocers  of  the  quality  of  our  goods. 

After  the  first  sales  ha^"e  been  made,  the  demand  always  be- 
comes larger  and  easier.  Of  course,  occasional  objections  are 
made,  by  persons  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  properties 
and  qualities  of  good  honey;  but  these  are  easily  overcome, 
when  you  have  once  gained  the  confidence  of  the  dealers. 

Extracted  honey  is  usually  sold  at  betw^een  half  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  price  of  comb-honey.  It  ships  better,  leaks  less, 
and  keeps  more  easily  than  comb-honey;  and  its  lower  cost 
of  production  will  sooner  or  later  make  it  the  lioney  for  the 
masses. 

Uses  of  Honey. 

847.  The  traditions  of  the  remotest  antiquity  show  that 
honey  has  always  been  considered  a  pleasant  and  healthy  food. 
For  several  thousand  years,  it  was  the  only  sweet  known. 

Now  that  the  sap  of  the  cane,  or  the  beet,  converted  into 
sugar,  or  the  cheaper  corn  syrup,  made  by  boiling  com  starch 
with  sulphuric  acid,  have  become  a  necessity  in  eveiy  family, 
let  us  see  what  place  honey  may  occupy  in  our  diet,  not  only 
as  a  condiment  like  sugar,  but  as  food,  drink,  and  medicme. 

As  Food. 

Honey  as  food  is  very  healthy.  It  is  admitted  that  those 
who  use  honey  freely  at  meal  time,  find  in  it  health  and  long 
life. 

"It  is  Nature 's  offering  to  man — ready  for  use,  distilled  drop 
by  drop  in  myriads  of  flowers,  by  a  more  delicate  process  than 
any  human  laboratory  even  produced." — (T.  Gr.  Newman, 
"Honey  as  Food  and  Medicine.") 

The  following  extract  from  the  work  of  Sir  J.  More,  Lon- 


1 


526  USES   OF  HONEY. 

doHj  1707,  will  show  the  estimate  which  the  old  writers  set 
upon  bee-products: 

"Natural  wax  is  altered  by  distillation  into  an  oyl  of  mar- 
vellous vertue;  it  is  rather  a  Divine  medicine  than  humane, 
because,  in  wounds  or  inward  diseases,  it  worketh  miracles. 
The  bee  helpeth  to  cure  all  your  diseases,  and  is  the  best  little 
friend  a  man  has  in  the  world.  .  .  .Honey  is  of  subtil  parts,  and 
therefore  doth  pierce  as  oyl,  and  easily  passeth  the  parts  of 
the  body;  it  openeth  obstructions,  and  cleareth  the  heart  and 
lights  of  those  humors  which  fall  from  the  head;  it  purgeth 
the  foulness  of  the  body,  cureth  phlegmatick  matter,  and  sharp- 
eneth  the  stomach;  it  purgeth  those  things  which  hurt  the 
clearness  of  the  eyes,  breedeth  good  blood,  stirreth  up  natural 
heat,  and  prolongeth  life;  it  keepeth  all  things  uncorrupt  which 
are  put  into  it,  and  is  a  sovereign  medicament,  both  for  out- 
ward and  inward  maladies;  it  helpeth  the  grief  of  the  jaws, 
the  kernels  growing  within  the  mouth,  and  the  squinancy;  it  is 
drank  against  the  biting  of  a  serpent  or  a  mad  dog;  it  is  good 
for  such  as  have  eaten  mushrooms,  for  the  falling  sickness,  and 
against  the  surfeit.  Being  boiled,  it  is  lighter  of  digestion,  and 
more  nourishing." 

848.  When  Augustus-Julius-Cassar,  dining  with  Pollio- 
Rumilius  on  his  hundredth  birthday,  inquired  of  him  how  he 
had  preserved  both  vigor  of  body  and  mind,  Pollio  replied: 
^'Interius  melle,  exterius  oleo/'— Internally  by  honey,  ex- 
ternally by  oil. 

^  Honey  is  in  daily  use  on  our  table,  and  we  find  that  children 
prefer  it  to  sugar.  The  only  cause  of  its  not  being  in  gen- 
eral use  in  place  of  "vile  syrups"  is  the  high  price  at  which  it 
was  formerly  sold. 

Mr.  Newman  in  his  little  pamphlet  above  quoted,  says:— 

*'It  is  a  common  expression  that  honey  is  a  luxury,  having 
nothing  to  do  with  the  life-giving  principle.  This  is  an  error — 
honey  is  food  in  one  of  its  most  concentrated  forms.  True,  it 
does  not  add  so  much  to  the  growth  of  the  muscles  as  does  beef- 
steak, but  it  does  impart  other  properties  no  less  necessary  to 
health  aiid  vigorous  physical   and  intellectual  action!    It  gives 


HOXEY  AS   FOOD.  327 

warmth  to  the  system,  arouses  nervous  energy,  and  gives  vigor 
to  all  the  vital  functions.  To  the  laborer  it  gives  strength — ■ 
to  the  business  man,  mental  force.  Its  effects  are  not  like  or- 
dinary stimulants,  such  as  spirits,  &c.,  but  it  produces  a  healthy 
action,  the  results  of  which  are  pleasing  and  permanent — a 
sweet  disposition  and  a  bright  intellect." 

849.  As  a  condiment  it  can  be  used  in  many  ways.  In 
candies  it  may  finally  replace  the  unhealthful  glucose  of  com- 
merce. The  confectioners  who  now  use  it,  increase  their  trade 
every  year. 

In  France,  ''pain-d'epice/'  "ginger  bread,"  is  sold  in  im- 
mense quantities  at  the  fairs.  The  best  makes  are  sold  at 
the  most  important  fairs  through  the  countiy.  It  keeps  an 
indefinite  length  of  time,  and  farmers'  wives  are  wont  to  buy 
enough  to  last  for  months.     The  following  is  the  recipe: 

850. ''Dissolve  4  ounces  of  soda,  in  a  glass  of  warm  skimmed 
milk.  Take  4  pounds  of  flour  and  pour  in  the  milk  and  enough 
warm  honey  to  make  a  thick  dough,  flavor  with  anise  and  corian" 
der  seeds,  cloves,  and  cinnamon,  all  powdered  fine.  Knead 
carefully,  as  you  would  bread.  Let  it  rise  two  hours  in  a 
warm  place,  spread  in  pans  and  bake  in  a  moderately  warm 
oven.  Ten  or  twelve  minutes  will  do,  if  the  cakes  are  thin.  As 
soon  as  the  cake  resists  to  the  touch  of  the  finger  it  is  done. 
Before  baking,  it  may  be  decorated  with  almonds,  preserved 
lemon  peel,  etc.  Wheat  flour  makes  good  'pain-d'epice,'  but  some 
prefer  rye  flour.  Fall  honey  is  preferable  for  it,  on  account  of 
its  stronger  taste." — L 'Apiculteur. 

The  spices  may  be  varied  according  to  taste.  Some  add 
powdered  ginger,  or  grated  lemon  or  orange  peel. 

851.  Crisp  ginger  bread  can  be  made  by  mixing  in  it  a 
quantity  of  broken  almonds,  blanched  by  dipping  in  boiling 
water,  hazel-nuts,  English  walnuts,  etc.  The  same  dough,  in 
skilled  hands,  with  different  seasonings,  will  make  a  variety 
of  dainties,  all  with  honey. 

Instead  of  lard  or  butter^  artistic  cooks  use  olive  oil  to 
grease  the  pans;  in  America,  cotton  seed  oil  takes  its  place, 
and  is  good.     The  Italians  sometimes  use  beeswax. 


528  rsES  OF  honey. 

852.  Alsatian  Ginger  Bread:  "Take,  yellow  honey  1  pound, 
ilour  1  pound,  baking  soda  Ih  ounce.  Dissolve  the  soda  in  a  ta- 
blespoonful  of  brandy,  heat  the  honey  and  put  in  the  flour  and 
the  soda.  Knead  the  whole  carefully,  and  cut  in  lumps  before 
putting  in  the  oven. 

"This  mixture  can  be  kept  in  the  cellar  for  months  and  can 
be  used  to  make  the 

"Leckerli:  Add  to  the  dough,  chopped  almonds  V^;  lb.,  pre- 
served orange  peel  2  drams,  ditto  lemon  1  dram,  cinnamon  Vi 
dram,  and  20  cloves,  all  finely  powdered.  Mix  well  and  bake. ' ' 
(Dennler,  "Honey  and  Its  Uses.") 

853.  Honey  Cake:  Warm  half  a  glass  of  milk  with  Vi  pound 
of  sugar  in  a  stew  pan.  Put  in  %  of  a  pound  of  honey  and  boil 
slowly.  Then  add  1  pound  of  flour,  ^o  dram  of  soda,  and 
knead,  spread  on  a  pan  and  bake  for  an  hour." 

854. Italian  "Croccante  Di  Mandorle":  "Blanch  two  pounds 
of  almonds,  by  dipping  in  boiling  water.  Slice  them  with  a 
knife.  Add  the  yellow  peel  of  a  lemon  cut  fine,  some  powdered 
vanilla,  and  a  few  lumps  of  sugar  flavored  by  rubbing  them  on 
orange  peel.  Boil  2  pounds  of  good  honey  with  an  ounce  of 
olive  oil  or  good  unsalted  butter,  till  it  is  reduced  to  thick 
syrup.  Then  add  the  almonds,  lemon,  etc.,  a  little  at  a  time, 
mix  well,  pour  in  a  buttered  tin  pan  and  press  the  mixture 
against  the  sides  with  a  lemon  peel.  It  should  not  be  more  than 
half  an  inch  thick.  AVhen  cool  take  the  crisp  cake  out  of  the 
vessel  by  warming  it  a  little."  (Sartori  &  Eauschenfels. 
L'Apicoltura  in  Italia.) 

855.  Muth's  Honey  Cake:  4  quarts  of  hot  honey  and  10 
pounds  of  flour,  with  ground  anise  seed,  cloves  and  cinnamon 
to  suit  the  taste.  This  is  made  into  a  dough  and  left  to  rest 
for  a  week  or  two,  when  it  is  rolled  out  in  cakes  and  baked. 
The  longer  the  rest,  the  better  the  cokes. 

Fruit  jellies  with  honey:  Take  the  juice  of  currants  or  other 
fruits,  and  after  adding  a  like  quantity  of  honey,  boil  to  a 
jelly.     Put  in  small  tumblers,  well  sealed,  in  a  dry  room. 

856.  HoNEY-viXEGAR  is  Superior  in  quality  ta  all  other 
Mnds,  wine  vinegar  included. 

It  takes  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  honey  to 
make  one  gallon  of  vinegar.     Two  good  authorities  on  honey 


HONEY  AS  MEDICINE.  529 

vinegar,  Messrs.  Muth  and  Bingham,  advise  the  use  of  only 
one  pound  of  honey  with  enough  water  to  make  each  gallon 
of  vinegar.  We  prefer  to  use  a  little  more  honey,  as  it  makes 
stronger  vinegar,  but  the  weaker  grade  is  more  quickly  made. 
If  the  honey  water  was  too  sweet,  the  fermentation  would  be 
much  slower,  and  with  difficulty  change  from  the  alcoholic, 
which  is  the  first  stage,  into  the  acetic.  This  change  of  fer- 
mentation may  be  hurried  by  the  addition  of  a  little  \'inegar, 
or  of  w^hat  is  commonly  called  vinegar  mother. 

If  honey  water,  from  cappings,  is  used,  a  good  test  of  its 
strength  is  to  put  an  egg  in  it.  The  egg  should  float,  coming 
up  to  the  surface  at  once.  If  it  does  not  rise  easily,  there 
is  too  little  honey.  As  vinegar  is  made  by  the  combined 
action  of  air  and  warmth,  the  barrel  in  which  it  is  contained 
must  be  only  partly  filled,  and  should  be  kept  as  warm  as 
convenient.  It  is  best  to  make  a  hole .  in  each  head  of  the 
barrel,  about  four  or  five  inches  below  the  upper  stave,  to 
secure  a  current  of  air  above  the  liquid.  These,  as  well  as  the 
bung  hole,  should  be  covered  with  veiy  fine  wire  screen,  or 
with  cloth,  to  stop  insects. 

A  very  prompt  method  consists  in  allowing  the  liquid  to 
drip  slowly  from  one  barrel  into  another,  as  often  as  pos- 
sible during  warm  weather. 

As  we  make  vinegar  not  only  for  oui'  own  use,  but  also  to 
sell  to  our  neighbors,  we  keep  two  barrels,  one  of  vinegar 
already  made,  the  other  fermenting.  "When  we  draw  a  gal- 
lon of  vinegar,  we  replace  it  with  a  gallon  fi-om  the  other 
barrel.     This  keeps  up  the  supply. 

Vinegar  should  not  be  kept  in  the  same  cellar  with  wines, 
as  its  ferment  would  spoil  the  Avines  sooner  or  later. 

Honey   as   Medicine. 

857.  In  Denmark  and  Hanover,  the  treatment  of  Chlor- 
osis, by  honey,  is  popular.  The  pale  girls  of  the  cities  are  sent 
to   the   country,   to   take  exercise  and   eat   honey.     The  good 


530  t'SES    OF   HONEY. 

results  of  this  treatment  have  suggested  to  Lehman  the  theory 
that  the  insufficiency  of  hepathic  sugar  is  the  cause  of  Chlor- 
osis, which  thus  explains  the  curing  effect  of  honey.  (Jaccoud, 
as  quoted  by  the  Bevue  Internationale  d^ Apiculture.) 

Honey,  mixed  with  flour,  is  used  to  cover  boils,  bruises, 
bums,  etc. ;  it  keeps  them  from  contact  with  the  air,  and  helps 
the  healing.  Beverages,  sweetened  with  honey,  will  cure  sore 
throat,  coughs,  and  will  stop  the  development  of  diphtheria, 
especially  if  taken  on  an  empty  stomach,  at  bed  time.  A  glass 
of  wine  or  cider,  strongly  sweetened  with  honey,  is  ad\'ised  in 
VApiculteur,  as  a  cure  for  colds.     (1886.) 

Suckling  babies  are  cured  of  constipation,  by  a  mixture  of 
bread  and  honej-  given  them,  tied  in  a  "sugar  teat.'' 

A  constant  use  of  honey,  at  meal  time,  cures  some  of  the 
worst  cases  of  piles. 

"According  to  Mr,  Woiblet,  washing  the  hands  with  sweet- 
ened water  will  kill  warts.  Having  heard  of  the  healing  he 
put  honey  plasters  on  the  hands  of  a  child  who  had  a  large 
wart  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  after  a  few  days  of  treat- 
ment the  wart  disappeared." — Bertrand,  (Revue  Internationale 
d  'Apiculture.) 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

Beeswax^  and  its  Uses. 
Melt  in  r;    Wax. 

858.  We  will  now  describe  the  different  processes  used  by 
bee-keepers  to  render  the  combs  into  wax.  To  melt  every 
comb,  or  piece  of  comb,  as  it  is  taken  from  the  hive,  would 
increase  the  work,  and,  as  it  is  preferable  to  choose  our  time 
for  this  operation,  we  have  to  preserve  them  from  the  ravages 
of  the  moths  (802)  by  some  of  the  methods  that  we  have 
given    (812). 

859.  The  cappings  (772)  after  extracting,  are  allowed  to 
drain  in  a  warm  place  for  several  weeks;  very  nice  honey 
being  obtained  from  them.  They  are  then  washed  in  hot  water, 
and  the  sweet  water  obtained  can  be  used  for  cider,  or  wine, 
or  vinegar  (856).  These  cappings,  as  well  as  the  broken 
pieces  of  white  comb  in  which  brood  was  never  raised,  should 
be  melted  apart  from  the  darker  combs,  for,  not  only  are 
they  easier  to  melt,  but  the  wax  obtained  being  very  bright 
in  color,  is  unsurpassed  for  making  comb-foundation  (674) 
for  surplus  boxes. 

860.  When  the  combs  are  blackened  by  the  dejections  of 
the  worker  bees  (784),  or  of  the  drones  (40),  and  by  the 
skins  and  cocoons  of  the  larvse  (167),  it  is  so  difficult  to 
render  the  wax,  that  many  bee-keepers  think  it  is  not  worth 
the  trouble.  We  advise  washing  these  combs  and  keeping 
them  under  water  for  about  twenty-four  hours.  Then  the  co- 
coons and  other  refuse  being  thoroughly  wet  and  partly  dis- 
solved, will  not  adhere  to  the  wax.  This  will  be  lighter  col- 
ored, if  the  combs  are  melted  with  clear  water  and  not  with 
the  water  already  darkened  by  the  washing. 

531 


532 


BEESWAX    AND    ITS    USES. 


But  as  this  method  always  leaves  some  wax  in  the  residues, 
for  some  of  it  goes  into  the  cells  during  the  melting,  and  it 
is  impossible  to  dislodge  it,  a  better  result  is  obtained  by 
crushing  the  combs  before  washing  them.  But  this  pulver- 
izing can  be  done  only  in  Winter,  when  the  wax  is  brittle. 

861.     The  combs  should  be  melted  with  soft  or  rain  water, 


Fig.  227. 

KUHX  WAX  KETTLK. 

a— Removable  crank,  b— Level  of  the  water,  c— Screen  for  straining:  the 
liquid  wax.  d— Level  of  the  combs,  e— Wings  of  the  wheel,  f— Shoulders 
for  supporting  kettle  on  stove. 


the  boiler  kept  about  two-thirds  full,  and  heated  slowly,  to 
prevent  boiling  over.  If  the  floor,  around  the  stove,  is  kept 
wet,  any  wax  that  may  drop  will  be  easily  peeled  off. 

During  the  melting  carefully  stir  till  all  is  well  dissolved. 


MELTING    WAX. 


533 


Then  lower  into  the  boiler  a  sieve  made  of  a  piece  of  wire 
cloth,  bent  in  the  shape  of  a  box,  from  which  the  wax  can  be 
dipped  as  it  strains  into  it.  If  the  whole  is  thoroughly  stirred 
for  some  time,  verj'  little  wax  will  be  left  in  the  residues. 
This  is  the  cheapest  and  best  method  of  rendering  wax,  with- 
out the  help  of  a  specially  made  wax-extractor. 

862.     To  obtain  as  much  wax  as  possible  from  the  combs, 


Fig.  228. 

GERMAN    WAX    PRESS. 

(From  the  A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture.) 


the  large  wax  manufacturers  of  Europe  empty  the  contents 
of  the  boiler  into  a  bag,  made  of  hoi^se-hair  or  strong  twine, 
and  place  the  bag  under  a  press  while  boiling  hot.  All  the 
implements  used,  as  well  as  tlie  bag,  are  previously  wetted, 
to  prevent  their  sticking. 

Several  implements  have  lately  been  devised  for  rendering 


534 


BEESWAX    AND    ITS    USES. 


beeswax.  A  French  wax-bleacher  devised  a  ket%,  Fig.  227, 
described  in  the  American  Bee  Journal,  which  permits  of 
stirring  the  combs  while  they  are  held  under  water.  In  this 
way  the  wax  is  permitted  to  escape.  To  make  it  still  more 
easy  for  the  wax  to  come  to  the  surface  they  use  salt  water, 
which  is  heavier  than  ordinary  rain  water  and  its  greater 
density  causes  the  wax  to  float  more  readily. 

But  the  ultimate  method  for  getting  all  the  v:ax  out  of  the 
"slum-gum"  or  residues  is  the  use  of  a  press.     The  German 


Fig.    229. 

HKRSHISEU   WAX   PRESS 


press,  Fig.  228,  does  good  work,  if  not  too  great  a  quantity  of 
residue  is  rendered  at  one  time.  Mr.  Hershiser  of  Buffalo  has 
devised  a  press.  Fig.  229,  in  which  he  uses  screens  between 
several  layers  of  comb  wrapped  in  burlap.  These  screens 
allow  the  wax  to  escape  from  the  center  of  the  mass,  much  on 
the  same  plan  as  the  large  cider  presses  of  Illinois,  in  which  the 
apple  cheese  is  separated  by  cloth  in  a  dozen  different  layers. 
The  different  presses  must  be  used  over  steam  or  water,  so  as  to 
keep  the  mass   hot  all   the  time. 


MELTING   WAX.  535 

863.  Cappings  from  the  extracting  and  small  pieces  gath- 
ered from  time  to  time,  may  be  rendered  during  the  summer, 
by  the  use  of  a  sun-extractor,  wherever  the  sun  is  sufficiently 
powerful.  At  this  latitude,  the  42°,  sun-extractors  can  be 
efficiently  used  during  the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and 
August.  The  sun-extractcr  requires  no  labor  from  the  Apia- 
rist, other  than  filling  it  with  combs  and  removing  the  melted 
wax. 

864.  The  dealers  in  France  buy,  from  the  bee-keepers, 
for  little  or  nothing,  the  residues  of  their  melted  combs.  They 
dissolve  them  in  turpentine,  press  the  pulp  dry,  and  distill 
the  liquid,  to  separate  the  turpentine.  As  the  wax  is  not 
volatile,  it  remains  in  the  still.  It  is  said  that,  when  wax 
was  dearer  than  it  is  now,  large  profits  were  realized  by  this 
operation. 

865.  To  cleanse  beeswax  from  its  impurities,  we  melt  it 
carefully  with  cistern  water  and  pour  it  into  flaring  cans 
(wider  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom)  containing  a  little  boil- 
ing water.  This  wax  is  kept  in  the  liquid  state,  at  a  high 
temperature,  for  twenty-four  hours.  During  this  time,  the 
impurities  drop  to  the  bottom  and  can  be  scraped  from  the 
cake  when  cold.  Some  wax  can  be  obtained  from  this  refuse, 
but  some  of  it  is  always  left  in  the  dregs,  as  is  proven  by 
the  impossibility  of  dissolving  them  by  exposure.  Nothing 
can  destroy  beeswax,  except  fire,  or  the  ravages  of  the  bee- 
moth.  Exposure  to  the  weather  does  not  affect  it,  but  only 
bleaches  it. 

To  prevent  the  cakes  of  wax  from  cracking,  it  should  be 
poured  into  the  molds  or  cans  when  only  165°  Fahr.  and 
should  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  to  cool  slowly. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  used  by  bleachers  and  foundation  manu- 
facturers in  rendering  beeswax  out  of  the  dark  residues.  Some 
writers  have  recommended  this  method  to  the  bee-keeper.  We 
\vish  to  warn  them  against  it.  No  acid  is  necessaiy  in  sep- 
arating the  wax  from  the  impurities  of  the  combs  and  if  it 
is  used,  the  beeswax  loses  its  fine  honey  and  bee  flavor  and 


636  BEESWAX    AND    ITS    USES. 

smell.  There  would  be  but  little  harm,  if  the  acid  (oil  of 
vitriol)  was  used  sparingly,  but  beginners  often  use  enough 
in  rendering  a  hundred  pounds,  to  serve  for  a  thousand  pounds 
or  more.  The  only  utility  of  it  is  in  rendering  residues  of 
the  worst  quality  in  large  establishments. 

866.  The  utmost  care  is  necessaiy  not  to  spoil  wax  in 
melting  it.  If  heated  too  fast,  the  steam  may  disaggregate  it. 
Then  its  color  is  lighter,  but  veiy  dim;  the  wax  having  lost 
its  transparency,  resembles  a  cake  of  corn  meal.  When  it  is 
in  this  condition,  water  will  run  out  of  it  if  a  small  lump 
is  pressed  between  the  fingers.  The  best  way  to  restore  it  is 
to  melt  it  slowlj'  in  a  solar  wax  extractor  (fig.  229).  We 
have  succeeded  also  by  melting  it  with  water,  and  keeping 
the  water  boiling  slowly  till  all  the  water  eontamed  between 
the  particles  of  wax  had  evaporated.  But  this  work  is  te- 
dious and  cannot  be  accomplished  without  the  greatest  care 
and  a  skillful  hand.  Whatever  the  means  used,  you  may  rely 
on  more  or  less  waste.* 

Wax-bleachers  draw  wax  into  small  ribbons  which  are 
exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  for  several  weeks,  or  melted 
with  chemical  acids ;  but  wax-bleaching  is  beyond  the  purpose 
of  this  book. 

Usea  of   TFax. 

8615'.  Before  the  invention  of  parchment,  prepared  as  a 
material  for  writing,  from  the  skins  of  goats,  sheep,  calves, 
etc.,  tablets  covered  with  a  light  coat  of  wax  were  used.  A 
style— an  instrument  sharp  at  one  end  to  engrave  characters 
in  the  wax,  and  broad  and  smooth  at  the  other  end  to  erase 
them— was  used  in  place  of  a  pen.  The  Latin  poet  Horatius, 
})orn  sixty-five  years  before  Christ,  probably  used  these  tab- 
lets, for,  in  his  admonition  to  poets,  he  writes :    ''Saepe  stylum 

*  Whenever  beeswax  it:  melted  in  water,  even  with  the  utmost  care, 
some  small  portions  of  it  are  water-damaged  and  settle  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cake  with  the  dregs.  This  water-damaged  bet?wax  has  oiten 
been  mistaken   for  pollen  residues. 


L^ES  OF  WAX.  537 

verf as.' '—"turn  often  your  style;"  thereby  meaning:    "Care- 
fully correct  your  writings." 

Several  nations  of  old,  having  noticed  that  beeswax  does 
not  rot.  used  it  to  embalm  their  dead.  Alexander  the  Great 
\ras  embalmed  with  wax  and  honey. 

868.  Beeswax  is  largely  used  by  the  Catholic  chm-ches,  for 
lights,  during  the  ceremonies,  for  it  is  prescribed  to  priests 
to  use  exclusively  wax  produced  by  bees. 

869.  In  several  countries  of  Europe  the  floors  and  stairs, 
instead  of  being  covered  with  carpets,  are  rubbed  with  wax 
and  carefully  scrubbed  with  a  diy  brush  every  day  till  they 
shine.  In  Paris,  floor  scrubbing  is  a  business  which  supports 
i.iany  working  families. 

Beeswax  is  used  also  by  the  sculptors  and  painters  to 
Aarnish  their  work,  to  model  wax  flgures;  by  dentists  to  take 
imprints  of  jaw-bones.  It  is  retailed  in  small  lumps  and 
used  to  give  smoothness  and  stiffness  to  thread  for  sewing. 

The  easting  of  bronze  statues  and  works  of  art  a  cire 
perdue,  has  been  largely  practiced  in  France  since  the  Renais- 
sance. This  process  is  mentioned  in  Harpers'  Monthly  for 
September,  1886. 

870.  Beeswax  forms  part  of  a  great  many  medicines,  and 
pomades  for  the  toilet.  Here  are  a  few  recipes  selected  among 
liundreds  of  others: 

J.     Salve  or  Cerate  for  Inflamed  Wounds. 

Beeswax    1     part 

Sweet  almond   oil 4  parts 

Dissolve  the  wax  in  the  oil  and  stir  well  till  cold.  Sv/eet 
almond  oil  can  be  replaced  by  olive,  or  cotton  seed,  or  linseed 
oil,  or. oven  by  fresh  unsalted  butter. 

This  cerate,  may  be  used  as  a  vehicle  by  the  endermic 
method— -we  mean  by  frictions  on  the  thin  parts  of  the  skin 
—to  introduce  into  the  blood  several  substances,  such  as 
quinine,  against  fever;  surphur,  for  itches;  camphor,  henbane, 
opium,  as  sedatives;  iodine,  as  depurative;  and  so  on,  the 
only  care  being  to  have  the  drugs  carefully  mixed. 


o38  BEESWAX    AND   ITS   USES. 

2d.     Turpentine   Balm   for   Atonic    Wounds,    (without   in- 
flammation) : 

Yellow  Beeswax 

Turpentine  

Essence  of  Turpentine 

Equal  parts. 
Melt  the  wax,  add  the  turpentine,  then  the  essence. 

3d,     Salve  for  the  Lips: 

Wax one  part 

Sweet  Almond  Oil two  parts 

Add  a  small  quantity  of  Carmine  to  color  it,  strain  and  add, 
when  melted  again  and  half  cold,  some  volatile  Oil  of  Rose. 


4th.    Adhesive  Plaster  for  Cuts    (sweet-scented)  : 

Colophony 40  parts 

Wax  45      " 

Elemi   rosin    25      " 

Melt  and  add : 

Oil  of  Bergamot 5  parts 

Oil  of  Cloves 2     " 

Oil   of   Lemon 2     " 

5th.     Green  Wax  for  Corns: 

Yellow  wax    4  parts 

White  pitch   2      " 

Venice   Turpentine    1      " 

Sub-acetate  Copper  (finely  powd.) .  1      " 

Melt  the  wax  and  the  white  pitch,  add  the  acetate  of  copper 
well  mixed  with  the  turpentine,  and  stir  till  cold.  If  too 
hard  to  be  spread  on  small  pieces  of  cloth,  add  a  little  olive, 
or  cotton  seed,  oil. 


tJSES  OF  WAX.  OSO 

6th.  Balm  of  Lausanne,  for  Ulcerated  Chilhlains  and 
Chaps  of  the  Mammae  or  Teats: 

Olive  or  Cotton  seed  oil 500 

Rosin  of  Swiss  Turpentine 100 

Yellow  Wax    133 

Powdered  Root  of  Alkanet 25 

Keep  it  melted  au  bain-marie  (834)  for  half  an  hour  and 
add: 

Balsamum  Peruvianum 16 

Gum  Camphor 1 

7th.     Mixture  to  Remove  the  Cracks  in  Horses'  Hoofs: 
Melt  equal  parts  of  wax  and  honey  on  a  slow  tire,  and  mix 
thoroughly. 

Clean  carefully  the  hoof  with  tepid  water  and  nib  the 
mixture  in  it  with  a  brush.  The  cracks  will  disappear  after 
several  applications  and  the  hoof  will  be  softened. 

8th.     To  Keep  the  Luster  of  Polished  Steel  Tools: 

Oil  of  Turpentine S 

Wax   1 

Boiled  Linseed  Oil Yz 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

Bees  axd  Fruits  axd  Flowers. 

871.  AVe  have  shown,  in  the  chapter  on  Physiology  (43), 
that  bees  cannot  injure  sound  fruits,  and  in  the  chapter  on 
Food  (268),  that  they  help  the  fecundation  of  flowers;  but 
this  accusation  of  bees  mjuring-  fruits  has  become  of  so 
much  importance  in  the  past  years,  especially  in  the  best  fruit 
and  bee  countiy  of  the  world,  California,  that  we  deem  it 
necessary  to  give  it  a  whole  chapter. 

While  the  honey-bee  is  regarded  by  the  best  informed  hor- 
ticulturists as  a  friend,  a  strong  prejudice  has  been  excited 
against  it  by  many  fruit-growers;  and  in  some  communities, 
a  man  who  keeps  bees,  is  considered  as  bad  a  neighbor,  as 
one  who  allows  his  poultry  to  despoil  the  gardens  of  others. 
Even  some  warm  friends  of  the  "busy  bee,"  may  be  heard 
lamenting  its  propensity  to  banquet  on  their  beautiful  peaches 
and  pears,  and  choicest  grapes  and  plums. 

That  bees  do  gather  the  sweet  juice  of  fruits  when  nothing 
else  is  to  be  found,  is  certain;  but  it  is  also  evident  that  their 
jaws  being  adapted  chiefly  to  the  manipulation  of  wax,  are 
too  feeble  to  enable  them  to  puncture  the  skin  of  the  most 
delicate  grapes. 

H7^Z.  We  made  experiments  in  our  apiary  on  bees  and 
grapes,  during  the  season  of  1879— one  of  the  worst  seasons 
we  ever  knew  for  bees.  The  Summer  having  been  exceedingly 
dry,  the  grape  crojD  was  large  and  the  honey  crop  small.  In 
everv^  vineyard  a  number  of  ripe  grapes  were  eaten  by  bees, 
and  the  grape-growers  in  our  vicinity  were  so  positively  certain 
that  the  bees  were  guilty,  that  they  held  a  meeting,  to  petition 
the  State  Legislature,  for  a  law  preventing  any  one  from 
owning  more  than  ten  hives  of  bees. 

540 


GROUNDLESS  'PREJUDICES.  541 

This  serious  charge  called  our  attention  to  the  matter,  and 
we  decided  to  make  a  thorough  investigation,  in  our  own 
vineyard.  But  although  many  bees  were  seen  banqueting  on 
grapes,  not  one  was  doing  any  mischief  to  the  sound  fruit. 
Grapes  which  were  bruised  on  the  vines,  or  lying  on  the 
ground,  and  the  moist  stems,  from  which  gi-apes  had  recently 
been  plucked,  were  covered  with  bees;  while  other  bees  were 
observed  to  alight  upon  bunches,  which,  when  fomid  by  care- 
ful inspection  to  be  somid,  they  left  with  evident  disappomt- 
ment. 

Wasps  and  hornets,  which  secrete  no  wax,  bemg  furnished 
with  strong,  saw-like  jaws,  for  cutting  the  woody  fibre  with 
which  ibey  build  their  combs,  can  easily  penetrate  the  skin  of 
the  toughest  fruits.  While  the  bees,  therefore,  appeared  to 
be  comparatively  innocent,  multitudes  of  these  depredators 
were  seen  helping  themselves  to  the  best  of  the  grapes.  Oc- 
casionally, a  bee  would  presume  to  alight  on  a  bunch  where 
one  of  these  pests  was  operating  for  his  own  benefit,  when 
the  latter  would  turn  and  "show  fight,"  much  after  the  fash- 
ion of  a  snarlmg  dog,  molested  by  another  of  his  species,  while 
daintily  discussing  his  own  private  bone. 

During  grape  picking,  the  barrels  in  which  our  grapes  were 
hauled  to  the  wine  cellar,  were  covered  with  a  cloud  of  bees 
feeding  on  the  damaged  clusters,  and  thej^  followed  the  wagon, 
to  the  cellar.  After  removing  the  barrels  to  a  jDlace  of  safety, 
we  left  one  bunch  of  sound  g rapes ^  on  the  wagon,  puncturing 
one  of  the  grapes  with  a  pin.  This  bunch,  being  the  only  one 
remaining  exposed,  was  at  once  covered  with  such  a  swarm 
of  bees  that  it  was  entirely  hidden  from  sight.  It  was  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  At  sunset  the  bees  were  all  gone, 
except  three,  who  were  too  exhausted  to  fly  off.  The  bunch 
had  lost  its  bloom,  the  grapes  were  shiny,  but  entirely  somid. 
The  one  punctured  grape  had  a  slight  depression  at  the  pin 
hole,  showing  that  the  bees  had  sucked  all  the  juice  they 
could  reach,  but  they  had  not  even  enlarged  the  hole. 

We  also  placed  bunches  of  sound  grapes  inside  of  some  four 


542  BEES    AND    FRUITS    AND    FLOWERS. 

or  five  hives  of  bees,  directly  over  the  frames,  and  three  weeks 
after  we  found  that  the  bees  had  glued  them  fast  to  the  combs 
as  they  glue  up  anything  they  cannot  get  rid  of,  but  the 
grapes  were  perfectly  intact.  This  test  may  be  made  by 
every  Apiarist. 

Mr.  McLain,  at  one  time  U.  S.  Apiarian  expert,  was  instructed 
to  test  this  matter  thoroughly  by  shutting  up  bees  with  sound 
fruit,  and  the  results  were  the  same  as  in  our  case.  (See  the 
Agricultural  Reports  for  1885.) 

873.  The  main  damage  to  grapes  is  done  by  birds.  Hence, 
the  borders  of  a  large  \'ineyard  are  first  to  suffer,  especially 
when  in  proximity  to  hedges,  orchards  or  timber. 

Even  in  small  cities,  the  number  of  birds  that  feed  on  fruit 
is  extraordinary,  and  one  can  have  no  idea  of  their  depredations 
until  he  has  watched  for  them  at  daybreak,  which  is  the  time 
best  suited  to  their  pilfering. 

After  the  mischief  has  been  begun  by  them  or  by  insects, 
or  whenever  a  crack,  or  a  spot  of  decay  is  seen,  the  honey-bee 
hastens  to  help  itself,  on  the  principle  of  "gathering  up  the 
fragments,  that  nothing  may  be  lost."  In  this  way,  they 
undoubtedly  do  some  mischief,  but  they  are,  on  the  whole, 
far  more  useful  than  injurious. 

875.  Among  thousands  of  testimonials,  we  translate  the 
following  from  UApicoltore,  of  Milan,  Italy,  May,  1874,  page 
181: 

"Being  a  lover  of  good  wine,  I  manufacture  mine  from  wdlted 
grapes;  my  crop  amounts  annually  to  from  thirty  to  forty 
hectolitres*  of  wine,  worth  on  average,  one  franc,  seventy-five 
centimes  per  litre,  t  When  my  grapes  are  gathered,  I  spread 
them  on  mats  of  reed  or  straw  in  a  sunny  place  in  front  of  my 
apiary,  where  they  remain  about  two  weeks.  For  the  first  two 
or  three  days  the  mats  are  covered  with  bees,  but  I  pay  no 
attention  to  this,  for  I  have  ascertained  that  they  gather  only 
the  juice  of  the  berries  that  are  damaged.     As  soon  as  the 

*  One  hectolitre  is  twenty-five  gallons. 

t  This  is  about  one  dollar  and  forty  cents  per  gallon,  a  high  price  for  Italy. 


GROUNDLESS   PREJUDICES.  543 

injured  berries  are  sucked  dry,  the  bees  cease  visiting  the  mats, 
for  they  cannot  open  sound  berries.  Instead  of  doing  me  any 
damage,  they  help  me  greatly,  as  they  take  away  from  my 
grapes  the  otherwise  souring  juices,  which  would  give  a  bad 
taste  to  my  wine. — Gaetano  Taxini,  Coriano,  Italy,  February, 
1874. 

876.  Those  who  handle  grapes,  apples,  etc.,  in  times  of 
honey-dearth,  should  avoid  attracting  the  bees,  bj'  unneces- 
sarily exposing  the  crushed  fruit,  in  waiin  weather,  as  the 
presence  of  bees  in  press-houses  and  sheds,  where  fruit  is 
either  made  into  wine,  or  otherwise  prepared  for  use,  is  the 
greatest  annoyance  that  they  can  cause  the  horticulturist. 

With  a  little  care,  a  wine-grower  may  escape  all  trouble, 
even  if  his  press-house  is  in  reach  of  a  large  apiary.  But 
let  him  not  imitate  the  grocer  who  had  an  open  box  of 
comb-honey  at  his  door  "for  show,"  and  tried  to  "shoo"  the 
bees  off,  when  they,  in  turn,  deputized  a  few  of  their  number 
to  "shoo"  him  off,  with  great  success. 

H77.  In  these  depredations,  the  wine-growers  who  do  not 
own  bees  are  often  vei*y  much  incensed,  because  they  believe 
that  the  Apiarist  is  making  a  profit  out  of  their  loss.  But 
such  is  not  the  case.  The  Apiarist  loses  more  than  the  wine- 
grower, for  many  of  the  bees  are  destroj^ed,  and  the  juice 
Avhich  the  others  brhig  home  is  worse  than  useless,  as  it  is  bad 
Winter  food  (627). 

It  is  tlierefore,  to  the  interest  of  the  Apiarist,  as  well  as  of 
the  fruit-grower,  to  prevent  the  bees,  in  all  possible  ways, 
from  getting  a  taste  of  the  forbidden  juices,  in  seasons— 
luckily  scarce— Avhen  there  is  a  dearth  of  honey  during  wine- 
making  time. 

878.  Some  ignorant  people  have  also  contended  that  the 
numerous  visits  of  bees  to  flowers,  injure  the  latter  and  cause 
them  to  abort.  This  is  the  greatest  of  all  delusions.  White- 
clover,  knot-weed,  and  Spanish-needles,  which  are  among  the 
plants  most  visited  by  bees,  are  also  the  most  abundant,  and 
if  they  were  damaged,  by  being  deprived  of  the  honey  which 


544  BEES    AND    FRUITS    AND    FLOWERS. 

they  yield,  they  would  sooner  or  later  disappear.  All  the 
observ'ations  that  have  been  made,  whether  scientific  or  prac- 
tical, show  that  the  contraiy  is  the  truth. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Bee-Keeper's  Calexdar. 

This  chapter  gives  to  the  inexperienced  bee-keeper  brief 
directions  for  each  month  in  the  year,*  and,  by  means  of  the 
full  alphabetical  index,  all  that  is  said  on  any  topic  can 
easily  be  referred  to. 

879.  January.  — In  cold  climates,  bees  are  now  usually 
in  a  state  of  repose.  If  the  colonies  have  had  proper  atten- 
tion in  the  Fall,  nothing  will  ordinarily  need  to  be  done  that 
will  excite  them  to  an  injurious  activity. 

In  January  there  are  occasionally,  even  in  veiy  cold  lati- 
tudes, days  so  pleasant  that  bees  can  fly  out  to  discharge 
their  faeces;  do  not  confine  them,  even  if  some  are  lost  in  the 
snow. 

It  is  advisable  to  arouse  them  early  so  as  to  cause  them  to 
fly  (689)  if  the  day  is  sufficiently  warm.  Othenvise,  disturb 
them  as  little  as  possible.  In  very  cold  climates,  where  cellar 
wintering  (646)  is  resorted  to,  all  that  is  required  is  to  keep 
the  temperature  as  even  and  as  near  42^  to  45^  as  possible 
(648),  with  quietude  and  darkness  (650).  The  Winter 
months  are  those,  in  which  the  bee-keeper  should  prepare  his 
hives,  sections,  foundation,  &c.,  for  the  coming  busy  season. 

880.  February.  — This  month  is  sometimes  colder  than 
January,  and  then  the  directions  given  for  the  previous  month 
must  be  followed.  In  mild  seasons,  however,  and  in  warm 
regions,  bees  begin  to  fly  quite  lively  in  Februai-y,  and  in  some 
locations  they  gather  pollen  (263).  The  bottom-board  should 
be  cleaned  of  the  dead  bees  and  other  rubbish  (663)  that 
sometimes  obstruct  the  entrance,  and  prevent  the  bees  from 

*  Palladius,  who  wrote  on  bees  nearly  2,000  years  ago,  arranges  his 
remarks  in  the  form  of  a  monthly  calendar. 

545 


o4(i  bEE-KEEPl-.R^S   CALENDAft. 

flying  out;  as  their  worry  in  finding  themselves  imprisoned 
does  them  much  harm.  If  any  hives  are  suspiciously  light, 
food  (607)  should  be  given  them;  this  only  in  mild  climates. 
Strong  colonies  will  now  begin  to  breed  slightly,  but  nothing 
should  be  done  to  excite  them  to  premature  activity. 

881.  March.— In  our  Northern  States,  the  inhospitable 
reign  of  Winter  still  continues,  and  the  directions  given  for 
the  two  i^revious  months  are  applicable  to  this.  If  there 
should  be  a  pleasant  day,  ^vhen  the  bees  are  able  to  fly  briskly, 
seize  the  opportunity  to  remove  the  covers  (636)  ;  carefully 
clean  out  the  hives  (663),  and  learn  the  exact  condition  of 
every  colony.  See  that  your  bees  have  water  (271),  and  are 
well  supplied  with  rye-flour  (265).  In  this  month,  w^eak 
colonies  commonly  begin  to  breed,  Avhile  strong  ones  increase 
quite  rapidly. 

If  the  Winter  has  beeii  very  severe,  this  month  is  the  most 
destructive  to  unhealthy  bees.  The  hives  of  dead  colonies 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  closed  tightly  to  keep  r(>b- 
bers  (664)  out,  or  they  would  carry  off  what  honey  may 
remain  in  them.  Spring  dwindling  (659)  should  be  guarded 
against  by  shutting  off  all  upward  ventilation  (352),  and 
reducing  the  space  in  the  brood-chamber  (349)  to  the  num- 
ber of  combs  actually  occupied  by  the  bees.  The  entrance  of 
the  hives,  especially  of  the  weak  colonies,  should  also  be  nar- 
rowed (348).. 

If  the  weather  is  favorable,  colonies  which  have  been  kept 
in  a  special  Winter  depositoiy,  may  now  be  put  upon  their 
proper  stands. 

The  time  of  removal  from  cellars  (646)  must  depend 
altogether  on  the  locality.  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller  removes  his 
bees  when  the  first  maple  tree  hlooms.  In  Canada,  they  are 
sometimes  left  in  the  cellar  till  May.  As  a  rule^  bees  are 
not,  and  should  not  be,  wintered  in  cellars,  south  of  the  39th 
degree  of  latitude. 

882.  April.— Bees  will  ordmarily  begin  to  gather  much 
pollen    (263),    in    this    month,    and    sometimes    considerable 


bee-keeper's  calendar,  547 

honey.  As  brood  is  now  veiy  rapidly  maturing,  there  is  a 
lai'gely  increased  demand  for  honey,  and  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  prevent  the  bees  from  suffering  for  want  of  food 
(607).  If  the  supplies  are  at  all  deficient,  breeding  will 
be  checked^  even  if  much  of  the  brood  does  not  perish,  or 
the  whole  colony  die  of  starvation.  If  the  weather  is  pro- 
pitious, and  the  bees  do  not  have  a  liberal  supply  of  stores 
on  hand,  feeding  to  promote  a  more  rapid  increase  of  young 
may  now  be  commenced  (606).  Feeble  colonies  must  now 
be  reinforced  (-ISO),  and  should  the  weather  continue  cold 
for  several  days  at  a  time,  the  bees  ought  to  be  supplied 
with  water  (271)  in  their  hives. 

This  point  is  much  neglected,  by  ourselves,  as  well  as  by 
others,  in  practice,  but  we  are  convmced  that  much  of  our 
April  loss  is  due  to  the  bees  going  in  search  of  water  in 
inclement  weather  (662).  At  this  time,  if  not  before,  the 
larvae  of  the  bee-moth  will  begin  to  make  their  appearance, 
and  should  be  carefully  destroyed,  not  that  they  are  very 
damaging  to  bees  in  a  carefully-conducted  apiary,  but  only 
that  they  give  annoyance  by  their  presence  on  the  combs  or 
comb-honey,  removed  from  the  bees,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
season  (812).  "One  stitch  in  time  saves  nine."  One  moth 
killed  in  April,  prevents  several  thousand  in  October. 

It  is  at  this  time^  that  the  hives  should  be  inspected,  to 
remove  all  drone  comb  that  can  be  found,  as  well  as  crooked 
combs  and  broken  pieces,— to  be  replaced  by  straight  worker 
comb  (676),  or  strips  of  fomidation  (674).  At  this  time, 
also,  the  hives  that  are  intended  for  drone  raising  (511), 
should  be  supplied  with  sufficient  drone  como  for  the  purpose. 
Queenless  colonies  should  be  given  young  queens,  purchased 
from  queen-breeders  in  the  South.  This  may  be  deferred 
until  May,  if  the  weather  is  cool.  Weak  queenless  colonies 
should  be  united  to  others,  as  a  rule,  it  does  not  pay  to  give 
brood  to  a  queenless  colony  for  raising  young  queens,  unless 
it  is  quite  strong,  in  bees. 

883.     May.— As  the  weather  becomes  more  genial,  the  in- 


54S  BEE-KEEPER  S   CALENDAR. 

crease  of  bees  in  the  colonies  is  exceedingly  rapid,  and  drones, 
if  they  have  not  previously  made  their  appearance,  begin  to 
issue  f  roni  the  hives  that  have  been  allowed  to  retain  a  notable 
amount  of  drone  comb,  and  this  is  the  time  to  raise  queens 
for  increase,  or  for  improvement  (4S9). 

The  breeding  space  of  weak  colonies,  which  has  been 
previously  reduced,  should  again  be  enlarged  as  their  needs 
may  demand  (3-19).  If  their  combs  are  judiciously  in- 
creased, with  a  proper  amount  of  stimulative  food  (606), 
and  a  little  help  from  the  stronger  colonies  (480),  they 
may  become  as  strong  as  any  for  the  June  harvest.  In  some 
localities,  the  strongest  colonies  may  already  gather  much 
honey,  and  it  will  often  be  advisable  to  give  them  the  supers 
(724)  ;  but  in  some  seasons  and  localities,  either  from  long 
and  cold  storms,  or  a  deficiency  of  forage,  hives  not  well  sup- 
plied with  honey  will  exhaust  their  stores,  and  perish,  unless 
they  are  fed.  In  favorable  seasons,  swarms  (406)  may  be 
expected  in  this  months  even  in  the  Northern  States.  These 
May  swarms  often  issue  near  the  close  of  the  blossoming  of 
fruit-trees,  and  just  before  the  later  supplies  of  forage,  and 
if  the  weather  becomes  suddenly  unfavorable,  may  starve, 
unless  they  are  fed,  even  Avhen  there  is  an  abundant  supply 
of  blossoms  in  the  field. 

884.  June.  — This  is  the  great  swarmmg  month  in  all  our 
Northern  and  IMiddle  States.  As  bees  keep  up  a  high  tem- 
perature in  their  hives,  they  are  by  no  means  so  dependent 
upon  tlie  w^eather  for  forwardness,  as  plants,  and  as  most 
other  insects  necessarily  are.  We  have  had  as  early  swarms 
in  Northern  Massachusetts,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia. 

If  the  surplus  cases  (724)  have  been  put  on  before  the 
honey  crop,  there  will  be  a  less  number  of  swarms,  especially 
if  the  boxes  have  been  furnished  with  combs,  as  baits,  and 
the  entrance  enlarged  to  help  ventilation   (344). 

If  the  apiaiy  is  not  carefully  watched  the  bee-keeper, 
after  a  short  absence,  should  examine  the  neighboring  bushes 
and    trees,   on    some   of   which   he   will   often   find   a   swann 


BEE-KEEPER\S   CAIiEXDAR.  549 

clustered,   preparatoiy    to   their   departure   for   a  new   home 
(419).  ' 

"As  it  may  often  be  important  to  know  from  which  hive  the 
swarm  has  issued,  after  it  has  been  hived  and  removed  to  its 
new  stand,  let  a  cup-full  of  bees  be  taken  from  it  and  thrown 
into  the  air,  near  the  apiary,  after  having  sprinkled  them  with 
flour;  they  will  soon  return  to  the  parent  colony,  and  may 
easily  be  recognized,  by  standing  at  the  entrance,  fanning,  like 
ventilating  bees." — Dzierzon. 

This  is  the  quickest  method  to  discover  the  home  of  a 
swarm. 

As  fast  as  the  surplus  honey  receptacles  are  filled,  more 
room  should  be  given  {735,  763).  Careless  bee-keepers 
often  lose  much,  by  negiecting  to  do  this  in  season,  thereby 
condemning  their  colonies  to  a  very  unwilling  idleness.  The 
Apiarist  will  bear  in  mind,  that  all  after-swarms  which  come 
off  late  in  this  month,  should  be  either  aided,  doubled,  or 
returned  to  the  mother-colony.  Tlie  issue  of  such  swarms  may 
be  prevented,  by  removing,  in  season,  the  supernumerary 
queen-cells.  During  all  the  swarming  season,  and,  indeed, 
at  all  other  times  when  young  queens  are  being  bred,  the 
bee-keeper  must  ascertain  seasonably,  that  the  hives  which 
contain  them,  succeed  in  securing  a  fertile  mother  (152). 

8S5.  July.  — In  some  seasons  and  districts,  this  is  the 
great  swarming  month;  while  in  others,  bees  issuing  so  late, 
are  of  small  account.  In  Northern  Massachusetts,  we  have 
known  swarms  coining  after  the  Fourth  of  July,  to  fill  their 
hives,  and  make  large  quantities  of  surplus  honey  besides. 
In  this  month,  or  as  soon  as  the  first  crop  is  over,  all  the 
spare  honey  should  be  removed  from  the  hives,  before  the 
delicate  whiteness  of  the  combs  becomes  soiled  by  the  travel 
of  the  bees,  or  the  quality  of  the  honey  is  impaired  by  an 
inferior  article  gathered  later  in  the  season  (782).  For  the 
same  reason,  the  honey  extracted  after  this  crop  should  not  be 
mixed  with  that  harvested  later.     In  all  the  localities  where 


550  bee-keeper's  calendar. 

a  second  crop  is  expected,  the  bees  should  again  be  incited  to 
breed  (606)  to  be  ready  for  this  second  crop. 

The  bees  should  have  a  liberal  allowance  of  air  during  all 
extremely  hot  weather,  especially  if  they  are  in  unpainted 
hives,  or  stand  in  the  sun  (344). 

The  larger  the  amount  of  honey  they  contain,  the  greater 
the  danger  of  combs  breaking  down  from  the  intense  heat 
(369).  The  end  of  the  honey  crop  can  be  told  by  the 
presence  of  a  few  robbers  who  immediately  begin  lurking 
about  the  hives  (664). 

886.  August.— In  most  regions,  there  is  but  little  forage 
for  bees  during  the  latter  part  of  July,  and  the  first  of  August, 
and  they  being,  on  this  account,  tempted  to  rob  each  other, 
the  greatest  precautions  should  be  used  in  opening  hives 
(666).  In  districts  where  buckwheat  is  extensively  culti- 
vated, on  flat  prairies,  or  in  the  low  land  surrounding-  o.u' 
rivers,  in  which  Fall-blossoms  gi'ow,  the  main  harvest  is  some- 
times gathered  during  this  month  and  the  next,  and  swarm- 
ing (406)  may  be  resumed.  In  1856,  we  had  a  buckwheat 
swarm  as  late  as  the  16th  of  September ! 

The  bee-keeper  who  has  queenless  hives  (499)  on  hand 
as  late  as  August,  must  expect,  as  the  result  of  his  ignorance 
or  neglect,  either  to  have  them  robbed  (664)  by  other  colo- 
nies, or  destroyed  by  the  moth  (802). 

887.  September.— This  is  often  a  very  busy  month  with 
bees.  The  Fall  flowers  are  in  full  blossom,  and  in  some 
seasons,  colonies  which  have  hitherto  amassed  but  little  honey, 
become  hea\7'^,  and  even  yield  a  surplus  to  their  owner.  Bees 
are  quite  reluctant  to  build  comb  so  late  in  the  season,  even 
if  supplies  are  veiy  abundant;  but  if  empty  combs  are  pro- 
vided, they  will  fill  them  with  astonishing  celerity  (763). 

As  S'jon  as  the  first  frost  takes  place,  or  whenever  the  crop 
is  at  end,  the  entire  surplus  must  be  removed,  whether  it  be 
comb  or  extracted  honey.  If  our  method  of  extracting 
(781)  is  resorted  to,  the  supers  that  have  been  returned  to 
the  bees,  for  cleaning,  after  the  honey  is  extracted,  may  be 


bee-keeper's  calendar.  5511 

left  on  the  hives  till  October,  as  they  are  safer  from  the  moths, 
when  in  care  of  the  bees. 

If  no  Fall  supplies  abound,  and  any  colonies  are  too  light 
to  whiter  with  safety,  then,  in  the  Northern  States,  the  latter 
part  of  this  month  is  the  proper  time  for  feeding  (608) 
them.  We  have  already  stated,  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
how  much  food  a  colony  will  require  (623),  to  cany  it 
safely  through  the  Winter;  it  will  be  found,  however,  veiy 
unsafe  to  trust  to  a  bare  supply,  for,  even  if  there  is  food 
enough,  it  may  not  always  be  readily  accessible  (631)  to 
the  bees.  Great  caution  will  still  be  necessary  to  gTiard 
against  robbing;  but  if  there  are  no  feeble,  queenless  or 
impoverished  colonies,  the  bees,  unless  tempted  by  improper 
management,  will  not  rob  each  other  (664). 

888.  October.— Forage  is  now  almost  entirely  exhausted 
in  most  localities,  and  colonies  which  are  too  light  should 
either  be  fed,  or  have  surplus  honey  from  other  hives  given 
to  them,  early  this  month. 

The  extracting  cases  (781)  should  be  removed  previous  to 
cold  weather,  as  some  bees  may  cluster  in  them  and  starve. 
These  cases  must  be  piled  up  carefully  in  the  coldest  room 
(810)  of  the  honey  house,  safe  from  mice  (816).  The 
exact  condition  of  every  hive  should  be  known  now,  at  the 
latest,  and,  if  any  are  queenless,  they  should  be  broken  up. 
Small  colonies  ought  tc  be  promptly  united. 

The  honey-selling  season  is  now  at  hand,  and  from  this 
time  till  the  end  of  the  holidays,  the  producer  must  look 
for  a  honey  market.  He  should  not  only  rely  on  sale  in  large 
cities,  for  they  are  always  crowded,  but  a  home  market  must 
be  cultivated  (840). 

889.  November.  — The  hives  should  now  be  put  in  Win- 
ter quarters,  the  quilt  removed,  and  absorbents  placed  in  the 
upper  stoiy  (636). 

All  possible  shelter  should  be  given  (635).  For  cellar- 
wintering  (646),  the  time  of  removing  the  bees  should  be 
at  the  opening  of  cold  weather.     The  later  in  the  season  that 


552  BEE- keeper's  calj:ndar. 

the  bees  are  able  to  fly  out  and  discharge  their  faeces,  the 
better.  The  bee-keeper  must  regulate  the  time  oi  housing  his 
bees  by  the  season  and  climate,  being  careful  neither  to  take 
them  in  until  cold  weather  appears  to  be  fairly  established, 
nor  to  leave  them  out  too  late.  A  cold  day,  immediately  after 
a  warm  spell  is  the  best  time  (647). 

890.  December.— In  regions  where  it  is  advisable  to  house 
bees,  the  dreary  reign  of  Winter  is  now  fairly  established, 
and  the  directions  given  for  January  are  for  the  most  part 
equally  applicable  to  this  month.  It  may  be  well,  in  hives 
out  of  doors,  to  remove  the  dead  bees  and  other  refuse  from 
the  bottom  boards  if  the  weather  is  warm  enough  for  them 
to  fly;  but,  neither  in  this  month  nor  at  any  other  time  should 
this  be  attempted  with  those  removed  to  a  dark  and  protected 
place.  Such  colonies  must  not,  except  under  the  pressure 
of  some  urgent  necessity,  be  disturbed  in  the  very  least. 

We  I'ecommend  to  the  inexperienced  bee-keeper  to  read  this 
synojDsis  of  monthly  management,  again  and  again,  and  to  be 
sure  that  he  fully  understands,  and  punctually  discharges, 
the  appropriate  duties  of  each  month,  neglecting  nothing, 
and  procrastinating  nothing  to  a  mure  convenient  season ; 
for,  while  bees  do  not  reguire  a  large  amount  of  attention, 
in  proportion  to  the  profits  yielded  by  them,  they  must  have 
it  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  right  way.  Those  who  com- 
plain of  their  unprofitableness,  are  often  as  much  to  blame 
as  a  farmer  who  neglects  to  take  care  of  his  stock,  or  to 
gather  his  crojDs,  and  then  denounces  his  employment  as  yield- 
ing onlj'  a  scanty  return  on  a  large  investment  of  capital  and 
labor. 

In  Short. 

891.  Spring.— Keep  hives  warm,  give  plenty  of  food, 
help  weak  colonies,  look  out  for  robbers,  remove  drone-comb, 
prepare  for  queen-breeding,  and  for  the  honey  crop. 

892.  Summer.— Watch  for  swarms;   and  make  divisions, 


BEE-KEEPEPJ^S   CALENDAR.  553 

if  increase  is  wanted.  Give  sufficient  storage-room.  Give 
additional  ventilation  if  needed.  Whenever  the  crop  is  over, 
remove  the  surplus. 

893.  Fall,— Look  out  for  robbers,  and  for  moths  on 
unoccupied  combs.  See  that  all  hives  have  suffcient  stores 
for  Winter,  and  unite  worthless  colonies  to  others. 

894,  Winter.— For  out  of  doors,  pack  absorbents  in 
upper  story,  removing-  air-tight  quilts.  Shelter  as  much  as 
possible  from  Avinds.  Leave  the  bees  quiet  in  cold  weather, 
and  see  that  they  have  a  flight  in  warm  weather.  Do  not 
be  confident  of  safe  wintering  till  March  is  over.  Then  pro- 
portionate the  room  to  the  strength  of  the  colony.  For  cellar 
wintering,  take  the  bees  in,  after  a  warm  day,  leave  them 
quiet,  in  the  dark,  with  an  even  temperature;  take  them  out 
on  a  warm  day,  and  decrease  the  brood-chamber  to  suit  the 
strengtli  of  the  colonies. 


Mistakes  that  Beginners  Are  Liable  to  Make. 

895.  i.  — They  are  apt  to  thmk  themselves  posted  after 
they  liave  read  the  theory,  and  before  they  get  the  practice. 

5.— Hence  they  are  apt  to  invent  or  adopt  new  hives,  that 
are  lacking  in  the  most  important  features  (358). 

.5.  — They  are  apt  to  think  that  bees  are  harvesting  honey, 
at  times  when  they  are  starving.  They  should  remember  that 
each  honey  crop  lasts  only  a  few  days,— a  few  weeks  at  most. 

4.  — They  are  apt  to  mistake  young  bees  on  their  first  trip 
for  robbers  and  vice  versa.  Young  bees  fly  out  in  the  after- 
noon only,  and  do  not  hunt  around  corners.  Robbers  are 
gorged  with  honey  w^ien  coming  out  of  the  plundered  hive, 
and  a  number  of  them  are  slick,  hairless  and  shiny.  Bees  that 
have  been  fed  in  the  hive  or  whose  combs  have  been  damaged, 
or  extracted,  and  returned  to  the  hive,  act  like  robbers,  and 
incite  robbing  (664). 

5.  — They  are  apt  to  overdo  artificial  swarming  (481). 


554  ADMCK  TO  iJKdlXXKRS. 

6'.  — They  are  apt  to  extract  too  niiK-h  honey  from  the  brood- 
eombs  (771). 

r.  — Tliey  underestimate  the  vahie  of  good  worker  comb 
(676). 

5.  — They  do  not  pay  sufficient  attention  to  the  removal  of 
the  excess  of  drone-comb  (675). 

9.— They  become  easily  discouraged  by  Winter  losses  and 
Spring  dwindling.  Some  of  our  most  successful  Apiarists 
periodically  lose  a  large  portion  of  their  colonies,  and 
promptly  recruit  again,  by  the  help  of  their  empty  worker- 
combs  (676). 

i(?,— When  they  find  bee-keeping  successful,  they  are  liable 
to  rush  into  it  on  too  large  a  scale  before  being  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  it.  "If  there  is  any  business  in  this  world 
that  demands  industry-,  skill  and  tact,  to  insure  succes.s,  it  is 
this  of  ours."— (Heddon.) 

ii.  — They  are  apt  to  try  two  or  three  different  styles  of 
hives,  before  they  find  out  that  it  is  important  to  have  all 
the  hives,  frames,  caps,  crates,  etc.,  in  an  apiaiy,  alike,  and 
interchangeable,  except  for  purposes  of  experiment. 

i^.  — They  are  liable  to  attempt  to  winter  their  bees  in  a 
cold  room,  or  in  some  repositoiy  in  which  the  temperature 
goes  below  the  freezing  point  (648).  Manj-  a  colony  has 
been  thus  innocently  murdered,  by  misguided  solicitude. 

iJ.  — They  are  prone, to  establish  niles  of  action  from  ex- 
periments made  on  one  or  two  colonies  and  thus  make  a  rule 
out  of  an  exception.  Experiments  have  little  value  if  they 
have  not  been  conducted  on  a  large  scale. 


Bee-Keepers^  Axioms. 

896.  There  are  a  few  first  principles  in  boe-kecping 
which  ought  to  be  as  familiar  to  the  Apiarist  as  Iho  'otters 
of  his  alphabet : 

1st.     Bees  gorged   with   honey   never  volunteer   an   attack. 


BEE-KEEPERS*  AXIOMS.  555 

Thus,  bees  that  come  back  loaded  from  the  field,  or  bees  that 
have  gorged  themselves  for  swarming,  are  not  dangerous. 

2d.  The  bees  that  are  to  be  feared  are  those  that  have 
joined  a  swarm  without  fully  gorgmg  themselves.  In  the 
hive,  the  guardians,  and  the  old  bees  that  are  i-eady  to  depart 
for  the  field,  are  the  most  dangerous. 

3d.  During  a  good  liDney  harvest,  the  bees  are  nearly  all 
filled  with  honey  and  there  is  but  little  danger  from  stinging. 

4tli.  Those  races  of  bees  that  cannot  be  compelled,  by 
smoke,  to  fill  themselves  with  honey,  are  the  most  dangerous, 
to  handle. 

5th.  Bees  dislike  any  quick  movements  about  their  hives, 
especially  any  motion  that  jars  their  combs. 

6th.  The  bee-keeper  will  ordinarily  derive  all  his  profits 
from  colonies,  strong  and  healthy  in  early  Spring, 

7th.  In  districts  where  forage  is  abundant  only  for  a  short 
period,  the  largest  yield  of  hone}-  will  be  secured  bj-  a  very 
moderate  increase  of  colonies. 

8th.  A  moderate  increase  of  colonies  in  any  one  season, 
will,  in  the  long  run,  prove  to  be  the  easiest,  safest,  and 
cheapest  mode  of  managing  bees. 

9th.  Queenless  colonies,  unless  supplied  with  a  queen,  will 
inevitably  dwindle  away,  or  be  destroyed  by  the  bee-moth,  or 
by  robber-bees. 

10th.  It  must  he  obvious,  to  every  intelligent  hee-keeper, 
that  the  perfect  control  of  the  combs  of  the  hive  is  the  soul  of 
a  system  of  practical  management,  which  may  be  modified  to 
suit  the  wants  of  all  who  cultivate  bees. 

11th.  A  man,  who  knows  ''all  about  bees/'  and  does  not 
believe  that  anything  more  can  be  gained  by  reading  Bee- 
Journals,  new  bee-books,  etc.,  will  soon  be  far  behind  the 
age.  Yet,  as  what  is  written  in  the  journals  and  books,  ours 
included,  is  not  always  perfectly  correct,  eveiy  bee-keeper 
should  try  to  sift  the  grain  from  the  chaff. 

12th.  The  formation  of  new  colonies  should  ordinarily  be 
confined   to   the   season   when   bees   are   accumulating   honey  j 


556  AOVTCF.  TO  BEGIN  KERS. 

and  if  this,  or  any  other  operation  must  be  performed  when 
forage  is  scarce,  the  greatest  precautions  should  be  used  to 
prevent  robbing. 

The  essence  of  all  profitable  bee-keeping  is  contained  in 
Oettl's  Golden  Rule:  keep  your  colonies  strong.  If  you 
cannot  succeed  in  doing  this,  the  more  money  you  invest 
in  bees,  the  heavier  will  be  your  losses;  while,  if  your  colo- 
nies are  strong  you  will  show  that  you  are  a  hee-master,  as 
well  as  a  bee-keeper,  and  may  safely  calculate  on  generous 
i-eturns  from  your  industrious  subjects. 


INDEX  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


Plate  Page 

1,  2,  L.  L.  Langstroth I,  II 

3,4,  Charles  Dadant V,  VI 

o  Queen,  drone,  worker 2 

6  F.  Huber 8 

7  Gaetano  Barbo 20 

8  Legs  of  worker-bees 21 

9  F.  R.  Cheshire 33 

10  Ovaries  of  the  queen 56 

11  Dzierzon 60 

12  A.  J.  Cook 96 

13  Gaston  Bonnier 122 

14  M.  Quinby 140 

15  A.  I.  Root 178 


Plate  j  'age 

16  E.  R.  Root._ 178 

17  Amary  in  California 216 

18  W.  Z.  Hutchinson 242 

19  Cell-cups  and  queen-cells 278 

20  G.  M.  Doolittle. 282 

21  T.  W.  Cowan 356 

22  J.  Mehring .  .334 

23  Foundation  moulding  table 390 

24  E.  F.  Phillips._„ 400 

25  C.  C.  Miller.__ 438 

26  F.  Di  Hruschka 454 

27  Ed.  Bertrand.__ 478 

28  N.  E.  France 486 


557 


TEXT   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Pig. 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 


Page 

Eye   of   worker   bee    4 

Small  eyes  of  drone    5 

Section   of   drone   antenna.  .      7 

Surface  of  antenna 10 

Section    of    flagellum    12 

Salivary    glands     16 

Section   through   head   of 

worker     17 

Head  of   honey   hornet    ....    19 

Head   of   honey   bee    19 

Mandible    of    hornet    10 

Mandible   of   bee 19 

Tongue     21 

Bee's    feet     23 

Wings  of  bee    26 

Digesting  apparatus    27 

Nervous    system     30 

Tracheal    bag     31 

Sting  of  worker-bee    36 

Queen    40 

Head    of   Queen 43 

Queen  cells  in  progress    ...    45 
Queen     cells    built    by     Cy- 
prian   bees    46 

Sting    of    queen     48 

Abdomen    of    queen     64  I 

Worker-bee     67  j 

Head   of  worker-bee    70  ' 

Egg   in  the  cell    71  I 

Eggs    and    larva     72 

Coiled    in    the   cell    73 

Stretched   in    the  cell    73 

Spinning    cocoon     74 

Nymph     75 

Ovaries  of  worker-bees  ...  78 
Brood  from  drone-laying 

worker     79 

Combs  of  brood 81 

Drone    83 

Head    of   drone    85 

Sexual  organs  of  drone  ...  86 
Penis  and  spermatozoids .  .  .    87 

Drone-trap    89 

Comb    built    upwards    .....    93 

Wax    scales    !  .  .    94 

Secretion  of  wax  scales.  ...  94 
Wax  producing  organ  ....  95 
Comb    builders     97 

Slope    of   cells    102 

Worker    and   drone-comb    .  .  103 

Combs   of    honey 117 

Scrophularia     127 

Water    supply    bottle     129 

Earthen   hive    132 

Box    hive    133 

Birthplace  of  Chas.  Dadantl34 
Eke  hive 135 


Fig. 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 

62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 

83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 


Page 

Radouan    hive    135 

Eke    of    Soria     136 

Dividing    hive    136 

Huber    leaf-hive     141 

Original  Langstroth  hive...  143 

Berlepsch    hive     144 

Langstioth    hive    early    im- 
provements     145 

Gravenhorst    hive    147 

Old  Standard  L  frame 147 

Wisconsin    hive    148 

Hoffman  frames 150 

Danzenbaker    frames    ..     ..151 

Diagrams   of   hives    152 

Movable  frame 158 

Frame  with  groove 159 

Van    Deuzen    clamp     160 

Hive  with  two  supers 161 

Diagram  of   Dadant  hive   ..164 

Dadant    hive,    open    165 

Dadant  hive,  flat  on  bottoml66 
Shoulder   supporting   frame.  167 

Metal    spacers     168 

One  and  a  half  story  hive.  .168 

Spacing   wire   fixed    169 

Tool  for  spacing  wire  ....170 
Removing   spacing  wire    ...170 

Division    board     171 

Frame     for     making     straw 

mats 173 

Dovetailed    hive     174 

Tri-state    hive    175 

Jumbo  hive 176 

How  boards   warp    179 

Observing    hive    186 

Observing    hive    in    a    win- 
dow     187 

Opening   hives    190 

Bingham   smokers 191 

Champion    smoker    192 

Cornell   smoker    193 

Bee-veil     196 

Comb-bucket     203 

Gathering   a    swarm    212 

Swarm-sack    223 

Entrance   guard 240 

Non-swarmer  block 241 

Apiary  of  E.  J.  Baxter   .  .  .  .245 

Queen-cell    removed     269 

Cutting  out  queen   cells    .  .  .269 

Cluster  of  queen-cells 270 

Queen    cells    271 

Divisible  frame    272 

Divisible  frame 272 

Benton  divisible  frame  .  .  .273 
Eeg  in  every  other  cell  ..276 
Alley's    method     277 


558 


TEXT   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


559 


Fig. 

109  Row  of  queen-cells 278 

110  Dipping-stick    280 

111  Miller  queen  cage 283 

112  Apiary    in    California 290 

113  Abdomen  of  Italian  bee.  .  .  .295 

114  Apiary    in    Bulgaria 302 

115  Apiary    of    Mendleson 304 

116  House  apiary  of  Jecker.  .  .  .305 

117  Shed   apiary    307 

118  House   apiary  of  Blatt.  .  .  .    311 

119  Apiary  in  the  Alps 314 

120  Window    screen    318 

121  Benton   cage 325 

122  Benton    cage    325 

123  Can   feeder    332 

124  Hill   feeder    332 

125  Doolittle    feeder    333 

126  Miller    feeder    333 

127  Hill  device    346 

128  Hives  sheltered  with  straw. 347 
128bi.s  Winter    packing    350 

129  Cloister   hive    353 

130  Double-wall    hive     354 

131  Double-wall       hive,       inside 

view 355 

132  Double-wall  Cowan  hive.  .  .  .356 

133  Chaff    hive    357 

134  Cheshire  hive 358 

135  Outer  covering 359 

136  Cellar  blind    363 

137  Cellar   blind 364 

138  Bee-clamp     367 

139  How  to  pile  the  hives 367 

140  Ground  plan  of  clamp 367 

141  In  the  snow 373 

142  Original    foundation    mill... 383 

143  Latest    foundation    mill....  384 

144  Vandervort     mill      386 

145  Thin     base    foundation 388 

146  Foundation    in    sections 389 

147  Parker    fastener 391 

148  Rauchfuss   section    folder... 391 

149  Hambaugh    roller 392 

150  Foundation  wired  in  frame. 393 

151  Vandervort     spur     394 

152  Miller   splints    395 

153  Locust    blossoms 399 

154  White    clover 400 

155  Implement    for    ascertaining 

length  of  tongue 400 

156  Alfalfa     401 

157  Red    clover .  .402 

158  Linden    403 

159  Alsike    clover 404 

160  Borage    '  '405 

161  Sweet   clover    406 

162  Yellow   melilot .'.  "407 

163  Persicaria      408 

164  Golden    rod 409 

165  Aster  roseus    ,  ,  .409 

166  Aster     tradescanti .  .  !409  ' 

167  Echinops     ritro     410  ' 

168  Helenium    tenuifolium     !!!!41o| 

169  Judas    tree 410 

170  Cleome    pungens !  411  [ 

171  Knot-weed     411 1 


Fig. 

172  Buckwheat  412 

173  Sage  413 

174  Asclepias  tuberosa 414 

175  Asclepias     syriaca 414 

176  Pollen  of  milkweed 414 

177  Epilobium  spicatum 415 

178  Valerian    415 

179  Enothera     grandiflora 415 

180  Hyacinth     416 

181  Lily  of   the  valley 416 

182  Solomon's,    seal 416 

183  Mignonette    417 

184  Crimson    clover 418 

185  Sainfoin     419 

186  One   piece   sections 431 

187  Folded    sections 432 

188  Super   with  pattern  slats... 433 

189  Full  depth  section  frame.  .  .434 

190  Slope     of     cells     when     in- 

verted     435 

191  Heddon    reversible    hive.... 436 

192  Section     super     with     wood 

separators     439 

193  Section  super  with  fences.. 440 

194  Wood-bound    zinc     441 

195  Unbound    zinc    441 

196  Slatted      wood-zinc      honey- 

bnard     441 

197  Unfinished  sections    445 

198  Top   and  bottom  starters.  .  .446 

199  Wide   frame,    half  filled....  447 

200  Super  with  springs 448 

201  Miller    T    super 449 

202  Open    sections .  .  .  .450 

203  Cowan    honey    extractor ....  453 

204  Half-story   supers    457 

205  Novice    honey    extractor.  .  .  .462 

206  Super  with    robber   cloths.  .464 

207  Porter  bee-escape    465 

208  Dadant-  capping-can    466 

209  Uncapping  and  extracting.  .467 

210  Bingham  honey-knife    468 

211  Large  funnel   and  sieve.... 469 

212  Appearance    of   foul-brood.  .476 

213  Bertrand    fumigator    479 

214  Bee-moth     439 

215  Moth    [[  1 490 

216  Larva   and  moth 492 

217  Gallery   of   moth .'493 

218  The  worms 493 

219  Cocoons    spun    by    larva    of 

moth    494 

220  Webs      and       remnants      of 

combs         destroyed         by 
moths 497 

221  Colorado  shipping  cases.  .      509 

222  Non-drip  Foster  case 510 

223  Grading    honey     513 

224  The  sixty-pound  honey  can!  515 

225  Dadant    honey-pails     521 

226  Friction-top    honey-pail  52'' 

227  Kuhn  wax-kettle    '.[  1532 

228  German    wax-press    533 

229  Doolittle  solar   extractor.  .  .534 


INDEX. 


Page.  ■ 

Abbott    metal    spacer 170  ]  Aristotle,   on  drones, 

Absconding    swarms    233 

Adobe    for    hives 177 

Adulteration,    of    beeswax 387 

of  honey 518 

Afterswarming    230 

Afterswarms,  prevention  of.  2-41,  212 
superiority    of.... 233 

objections    to 233 

Age    of    the   queen   when    fecun- 
dated        53 

Age   sign   of  old,    in  bees 80-82 

Air,   see   Ventilation 179 

Alexander,  on  overstocking 423 

Alley,    drone   trap 80 

mailing    queens    32-1 

method    of    queen-rearing         | 
276,   277 

on    impregnation    54 

Alighting-board,  see  Apron 16G  | 

Alsike  clover    403 

American    frames    153 

Ammonia     for     stings 208 

Anger  of  bees 189,   205 

Antennae    7 

bees   cannot   live  without  14 

cutting    of    the 14-15 

"       as  organs  of  hearing.  .  .  .    10 
as  organs  for  smelling.  .    11 
"       experiments  of  Huber  on 

the..      9 
Ants    about   the   hive 50.6 


Page. 


on  eggs    60 

on    foul-brood    473 

on    fruit    19 

on   Italian  bees 292 

on   moth    489 

on   pollen    125 

on  robber-bees 375 

on  scent  of  the  queen.. 288 

on  strong  odors 206 

on    water    370 

Artificial    swarming    243 

advices    on.  .253 
caution  about 

255,    256 
"  by    dividing.  244 

"  by        driving 

bees. 247 
by    removing 

the  hive. 246 
improved     .  .249 
"  nucleus     * 

method.  251 
with      queens 
already  reared.  250,   252 
with  queen- 
cells.  251 
increasing 

too  fast. 256 

Association    of    bee-keepers 543 

Australian    bees     299 


Austria,   yield  of  honey 424 

fondness  for  honey 509     Automatic    extractor     469 

their    fecundity    41     Axioms,    bee-keepers'     553 

Aphides,   Parthenogehesis   of   the   61 
causes     of     honey     dew 

119,   120     Bacillus    alvei,    see   Foul-brood 

Bait,   in  sections 437 

Baldenstein,  on  Italian  bees.  .  .  .297 

Balled  queens    227,   284 

Bar-hives 135,  136.  140.   244 


Apiaries,    covered    

306 

out   of    doors.  . . . 

303 

sheds   for    

306 

Aniarv     

301 

slow  motions  around  the .  .  1 99     Barbo IX 


Apifuge   19.5 

Apis   dorsata    300 

Apis  fasciata    298 


Barrels  for  honey 

469,    470,   512,   514 

Basswood,    see    Linden 


Apis    ligustica    293     Bears   and  bees 505 

Apis    mellifica    292    Beaunier    on    the    production    of 

Apron,  or  alighting-board 166  i       wax    99 

560 


INDEX. 


561 


Bee-bread,    see    Pollen 

Bee-dress     197 

Bee  escape    465 

Bee-hat     197 

Bee-keepers'    calendar    545 

Bee-louse     506 

Bee-moth     489 

description  of    ...489,   490 

food  of 493 

galleries    of     492,493 

how  they  act.... 490,  491 
how  to  destroy.  .  .498,  499 
in     queenless      colonies 

498,   499 

Italian  bees  and 499 

killed  by  cold.  .  .  .495,  496 
lays  eggs  in  propolis., Ill 

not  to  be  feared 501 

"         preserving  comb, 

against.  498 
temperature  required 

for  their  growth. 495 

worm  of  the 492,   493 

their    disgusting    work. 497 
Bees,    and   flowers.  ...  127,   128,   543 

and   fruits    19,   540 

angered      202 

by   bad    odors 206 

by  the  odor  of  their 

poi.son.207  j 
by    the    jarring    of 

the   hive. 202  , 

as  means  of  defense 210 

bewildered  by   light 201 

"      building  combs    93  I 

"      building    few-  store   cells... 107  | 
"      building   third   store   cells.  .109 
building  store  cells  here 

and   there. 109  ( 

"      Carniolan     292  , 

Caucasian     299 

"     climbing    on    polished    sur- 
faces.   22 

"     clustering   in   winter 340 

"      clustering  outside    ...162,   182  ^ 

Cyprian    298  ; 

deprived   of   their   antennae.    15  | 

"      deserting    211,    365,    372 

discharge    in    flight 33  ' 

do    not    make    honey..  116,   336 

"      dwindling    in    spring 368  | 

"     eating  to  keep  warm 341 

"      eyes   of    3,   4 

feeding    the    queen 9,   17 

filled   with   honey 191  1 

first  introduced  in  this  I 

country   292  ' 
"     first  noticed   in   Florida.  ..  289 
"     for  honey  production  in 

the  North. 327 

"     going  Westward   291 

"     handling     189  j 

"      hatching     75 

"     hearing   organs   of 10  | 

"      Holy   Land  and   Syrian.  .  .  .299  . 


Bees  how  far  they   fly 421 

how  many   in  a  pound. . . .326 
"      in  California  ...423,    424,   425 

in    Germany    424 

"      injured  by  fruit   juice. 344,   542 
"      Italian,  see  Italian 

"      killing    their    drones 90 

"     memory   of    14 

mouth  of    19 

"     noticing  their  new   location 

308,   328 
"      not  indigenous  to  America.  289 

"      on  boats    321,   322 

"     peaceable   when    filled   with 

honey. 191 

peaceable   when   swarming.  191 

"      preparing    to    swarm      ....211 

"      procuring    309 

propolizing    small    holes...  Ill 

"      quiet  at   mid-day 198 

races  of    293 

rebuilding    store   cells 108 

"     removing    from    the    cellar 

365,   366 
"     return  to  their  location 

274,  328,   366 

"      sending    scouts    216 

"     smelling    organs   of 11 

"      smelling    honey     13 

"      starving    in    Spring 317 

suffocated     181 

swarming    211 

swarming     with     introduced 

queen. 287 

"      transferring     309 

unable  to  take  wing 32 

understand    each    other.  ...    80 

"      varieties    292 

"     ventilating    179 

Bee-smokers,  see  Smokers. 

Beeswax    (see    also    Wax) 531 

adulteration    of    387 

for  comb-foundation    ...387 

melting    531 

pressing    533,   534 

residues      534,535 

spoiled    536 

uses   of    536 

Bee-veil    196,   197 

Beginners'   mistakes    553 

Beginning  on   a  small   scale.... 301 

Benton,    apis    dorsata 300 

"        Caucasian  bees 299 

divisible  frame 273 

mailing  queens    324 

trip   to   Cyprus 298 

trip  around  the  world.  .  .297 
Berlepsch,  on  comb  building.  .  .  .105 
on  drone-laying 

queens.    60 

on    Italian    bees 296 

on   refrigerating 

queens.    64 
on     water     in     Winter 

129,    370,   371 


562 


INDEX. 


Berlepsch,    hive    144 

"    defects    of     146 

Bernard,  on  the   brain  of  birds.    15 
Bertrand,     description     of     foul- 

biood.476,    477.   485 
on     Hilbert's    cure...  479 
honey   as   cure 

for  warts. 530 
"  "      honey    plants    ...420 

Langstroth     hive.  146 
queens  dying  of 

bacillus  alvei.474 

Bevau,   cure   for  bee   stings 20S 

on     bee-moths     ....492,   493 

honey-dew      120 

"      larvae     71,    73,    74 

"      propolis    110,    112 

"      salt     131 

quotations    of    Huber....291 
Reaumur.  185 
Bickford,    first    use    of    the    oil- 
cloth      172 

Bingham,    knife     468 

on    honey   vinegar ....  529 

smoker     191,   194 

Birds    and   bees 503 

should    not    be    killed 504 

"      injuring    fruit     541 

Bi-sulphide    of    carbon 498 

Bledsoe,    on    the    sting 38 

Blocks    for    the    entrance 166 

Blood    of    bees 29 

Boerhaave  on  Swammerdam.  .  .  .    40 

Bohemia    honey    production 424 

Boiling  honey  against  foul  brood 

479,   480,    484 

wax      532,    533 

Boissier,    on    honey-dew 118 

Bonnier,   on   Darwin 6 

"    honey-dew      121 

"     nectaries    ....118,    121 

Bottom-boards    160-164-107 

Bottom-boards,    encased    165 

Box-hives     133,    134 

Brace-combs,  see   Bridges. 

Brain    of    bees 15 

Braula    coeca     506 

Breathing    upon    bees 200 

Breeding    in    and    in 91 

Bridges     159,     203,   204 

Bridal     trip     54 

Brimstoning  bees    133,  428 

honey  comb  to  keep 

out  the  moth. 498 

Brood    accidentally    killed 487 

"     casting    the    skin 73 

"     chamber   in   two   stories 

objectionable .  152 
duration    of    development.  .    92 

"      how    fed 71 

"      pure    air    for 181 

sealed    by    bees 73 

"  transformation  of  the.  ...  74 
Buckwheat  honey  ...406,  423,  508 
Buera,   on  water   for  brood 

rearing.  371 


Burmeister,   names  the  stomach- 
mouth.  28 
discovers    different     sounds 
in  the  humming  of  bees  34 

Burnens   as    an    observer 77 

helped    Huber    8,    9 

Butler  anecdote   from 505 

on  drones    89 

on    drone    traps 89 

]'        on  handling   bees..  198,   199 

on    the    bee-sting 207 

on    sectional    hives....    135 

"        on   sense  of  smell 206 

saw     the     queen     deposit 
eggs 40 

Cages,     introducing     283 

"    shipping     325 

Cakes     5i>8 

California,    crop   of '.  425 

first    bees    291 

Candied    honey     515 

"    how    bees    dissolve.  129 

"    melting     517 

Candy,    for    feeding 334,  335 

"      for    shipping     324 

"     making      334 

Scholz     335 

"      shops,    killing    bees 338 

Cans,    for    honey 521 

Cap   of   the   hive 174 

Capping    can    466 

Cappings      467,  531 

Cappings    of    honey     cells,     air- 
tight?       122 

Carbolic  acid  for   foul-brood.  ...  481 

Carbolized    sheet     195,    378 

Carniolan    bees     292 

Cary,   on   uniting   colonies 349 

"     witnes.sed     the     mating     of 

a  queen 55 

Castellaz,    on    preserving    combs 

from    the   moth 499 

Catalogue    of   bee   plants 408 

Catching  the   queen  of  a  swarm. 225 
queens    for    shipment    or 

introduction    28  4 

Causes   of    swarming 211,236 

Cellar  blinds    363,  36  \ 

"     damp     362,365 

"     dark 365 

"      dry     360 

"     removing    bees    from 366 

"     temperature     363 

"      ventilation     365 

"      wintering   bees   in 360 

Cells,    accommodation    103,  104 

"     bottom   of    100 

"     diameter    of 103 

"      drone     103,107 

"      natural   explanation   of  the 

shape  of    lOl 

"     not   horizontal    102 

"     opposed  preference  of  queen 

and    worker    107 


INDEX. 


563 


Oells,  queen     45,  46,  2fi8-271, 

.278-281 

"      size    of    102 

"     solution   of   a   problem.  ...  100 

thickness    of     104 

"      worker     103 

Chaff    hives    357 

Cheshire,    criticism    of 12 

his   criticism    of    an    en- 
graving      104 

hive    358 

winter  packing  of..  .352 

mistake   of    145 

on    air-tight    cappings.  .  122 

on    breathing    32 

jn   cure  of   foul-brood... 

481,  483 

on    diarrhea    472 

on    foul-brood 474 

on  how  to  suspend  foun- 
dation   in    frames.  ..  .395 
on    the    antennae.. ..  7,  8,  10, 

11,12 

"     blood     30 

eyes    4 

•'      feet     23 

"     glands    16-17 

"      heart      30 

"      larvae      73 

"      legs    23,24,25 

name   of  worker-eggs   61 
"      pollen     baskets.  ..  .24-25 
skeleton    of    the    bee.      2 
survival     of    the    fit- 
test         8 1 

"      tongue    20-21 

"        on    wax    94 

Chickens  close  hives  in  the  even- 
ing      502 

"        eat  drones 91,  505 

Chin  of  the  bee 18 

Chitine     2 

Chloroform     286 

Chyle      28 

Clamps   for   wintering 368 

Van  Deusen's 160 

Claws    and    pulvilli ' 23 

Cleaning       propolis       from       the 

hands     112 

propolis     from     the    sec- 
sections     443 

Cleansing   beeswax    531 

Clipping  the  wings  of  queens. .  . 

225,226 

Cloister    hive    353 

Cloth,  oil  or  enameled.  , 172 

Clover,    alsike    403 

Clover,  melilot  or  sweet 405 

red     22,121,128,400 

white     398 

Clover  honey  508 

Clypeus  19 

Cocoons  of  bees 74 

of  bee-moth    497 

Cold  climate  for  wintering 340 

"     water   for  stings 208 


Collin,  can  bees  hear? 10 

invention  of   perfoiated  zinc  89 
'''     on  duration  of  cransforma- 

tions    75 

on    how    many    bees    in    a 

pound 326 

Colonies,   artificial   increase  of.  .243 

killed   by  heat 181 

natural    increase   of 211 

number  of,  in  an  apiary 

316,423,426 

"        queenless 

42,    262,    265,   379,   499 

removing    327 

shipping     320 

"        strong,    best  for  honey..  429 
transferring 

309,    313,   314,   315 
"        weak,    easily   robbed.  ..  .379 

yield  from    427 

i  Colorado,    Italian    bees   in 293 

Colors  as   guide  for  bees.. 6,   7,  306 

I  Columella,    his  writings 177 

'         "        mentions   the   bee-moth.  .489 

i         "        on  artificial    swarming.  .  243 

on  feeding  bees.  .  .  .329,  332 

on    handling    bees 199 

on   Italian   bees 294 

on  spring  examination  of 

colonies    373 

on  transporting  bees.  .  .  .322 

on   weak   colonies 266 

Colvin,     importation     of     Italian 

bees. .298 

invention    of   separators.  .  .439 

"     on  bees  transferring   eggs.    47 

Combat    of    queens 52 

Comb    bucket    203 

"     building    93,  107 

"      built    upwards    93 

"     foundation,   advantages  of. 382 

a   success    396 

"     dipping    389 

"     fastener    392 

"  for  brood-combs.388,393 
"  for  comb  honey.... 388 
"      for  swarms.  ..  .395,  396 

"     how  to  cut 394 

"     how    to    fasten. 392,  393 

"     results  of    385 

"     first   manufacturer.. 

384,390 

"     in     sections.  ...388,  389 

"     inventor  of 384 

"     mills,    Root    .  .384,  385 
Vandervort    .  .386 

"     moulding    389 

"     plaster   moulds   for. 385 

"  "      press    385 

"     right     position 395 

"     strips  for  guides...  158 

"     wax    for    387 

"     Weed   process 386 

"     weight  of  diiferent 

grades.  .391 
"  "     wiring    393 


664 


iNUEii. 


Comb  guides  for  frames.  157,158,221 

Comb  honey,   best  selling 430 

capping    of 122 

care  in  shipping511,512 
difficult  to  produce. 431 

leaking    510,511 

moths    in 498 

production     430 

by     reversing.  435 
"     Improve- 
ments in. 431,  432 
"  "     in  wide 

frames.  .448 
"  "     in   large 

frames.  .431 
"  "     in  lower 

story.  .433 
"     in     sections. .  .431 
"  "     in  shallow  up- 

per stories.  .433 
"  "      in  supers. 448, 449 

"  "     remarks 

on. .450,  451 
"     with    fences..  .439 
"     with  separa- 
tors. .439 
"     with   swarm- 
ing. .442 

sealed    443,   444 

sweating     510 

unsalable     44fj 

without   propolis442,443 

Combs    93 

"      age   of 74,  229 

"     breaking    down     182 

"     brimstoning  to  keep  out 

moths     408 

built    upwards 93 

care  in  returning  after  in- 
spection       204 

"      care    of    in    Winter 471 

"     economy  of   bees    in  build- 
ing      104 

"     empty,   furnishing  to  bees. 461 
"        "        given    to    prevent 

swarming     238 

"     extracting    from 463 

*'     guides  for  straight 

157,   158,   382 

"     made    of    wax 93 

"      melting      532 

"      moths    in     497 

"     pruning     133 

"     returned   to   the  bees   after 

extracting    471 

"      straight     157.383,385 

"     surface  occupied  by  brood. 155 

"      transferring    313 

"     washing     dark 531 

Comparative    table    of    transfor- 
mations         92 

Comparison      of      the      eyes      of 

nupens,  drones,   and  workers     4 
Confrctioners  annoyed  by  bees.. 338 

Confining    b^es    unsafe 181 

Confining  colonies    320,  353 

Confining  aueens    323 

Confinement,  fertilization  in....    55 


Confinement,  in    cellar     3G0 

out    of    doors 353 

Constipation    369,  472 

Consumption    of    honey 520 

by  bees  in 
Winter.  .341,  342 

"  of     pollen 125 

Contagious     diseases 472-487 

Contraction      of      brood      cham- 
ber      369,370,437 

Cook,    his   praise   of    the    Langs- 
troth    hive. . . .142 

"      Lubbock's    experiment 6 

"      on  enemies    of   bees 507 

"      on  Neighbour's    opinion....   54 
"     on  the  broodo  of  the  moth. 490 

"      on  the  ears  of  bees 11 

"      on  production  of  wax 

scales  in  old  bees.  .    96 

"     quotation    of    Doolittle 260 

Cowan,    apifuge 195 

automatic    extractors    ....469 

"      hive     356 

"      in    Italy    146 

"      microscopical    studies    ....    12 

on  foul-brood    . 479 

"      on  the  prevention  of 

swarming.  .239 
"     on    the    treatment   of   foul- 
brood.  .479,  487 
Cracks,    closed   with   propolis   by 

bees.  .111 
"     how  to  close  when  bees  rob380 
Crates,   see   Section-crates 
Cutting,   H.   D.,  on  the  introduc- 
tion   of    virgin    queens... 280 

Cyprian   bees    293,  298,  299 

"   difficult  to  subdue..  198 
"  "  rearing  queen-cells.    46 

Debeauvoys     142 

Decoy    hives     310 

Deep    frames     153 

De    Gelieu    hive 136 

on  weight  of  bees.  .  .  .326 
De   Layens   counted   the   eggs 

dropped    by    queens.  .    66 
"  experiments  on  cost  of 

wax. .106 
"  "  the  use  of 

water.  .130 

"  on  feeding  bees 335 

"  report  of  weight  of  a 

swarm.  .239 

Delia    Rocca    comb-guide 157 

"  on    age  of   colonies.  .  .    81 

"  on  attracting  swarms. 220 

"  on    bees    as    means    of 

defense.  .210 
"  on    floating    apiaries.  .  321 

De  Planta,    experiments   on    food 

of    larvqp.  .2^d 
on    honey. .397 

Desertion     211,  369.  372 

Diarrhoea     343,  472 

Dieesting    apparatus 26 

Digestion,  process  of 28,  29 


INDEX. 


565 


Diseases    472 

"  bacillus    alvel 474 

Gaytoni    .472,   473 

black-brood 474,485 

"  diarrticea     472 

foul-brood     473 

mal    de    Maggio.  .472,  473 

paralysis      472,473 

pickled-brood     487 

"  vertigo     472 

Disturbing  bees  in  cold  weatber.355 

Dividing     244 

hive      136 

"  unreliable     24G 

Divisible  frame    272 

Division  boards    171 

"  removing     202 

"     .         space    under 172 

Donhoff,    description    of    moths.. 496 
"        experiments    on    young 

bees. .68-69 
"        on  development  of  moths4  96 

on    food   of   moths 493 

on   thickness  of  honey 

cells.  .104 

Doolittle,     feeder 333 

"        method  of  fastening.  .  .  . 

foundation    392 

"  method  of  queen-rear- 

ing. .278 

on  propolis 442 

"     the   Gallup   frame.  151 

"      tin  roofs    175 

Dovetailed   hives 175,    176,   178 

Driving    bees    247,  311 

Drone  brood  in  worker  cells.  .64,  91 
Drone   cells.      See   Cells. 

Drone  comb,   bee'^  building 107 

rebuilt    109 

removed     63 

replaced  by  comb 

foundation     382 

"  scattered      109 

larvae,  bees  trying  to  raise 

queen   from    59,  80 

"      laying   queens  ..57,58,59,   64 

"    -laying  workers 77 

"      traps    89,  240 

"      description    and    office....    8.3 
Drones,  difficulty  to  raise  early.    64 

expelled   by   bees 90 

expelled   by  the  bee- 
keeper         90 

"        kept  in  queenless  hives. 266 

"        mating  in  the  air 83 

"        number  in  a   hive 85 

"        number   in    a    pound.... 326 

"        perish    in    mating 84 

raised  in  worker  cells.  63.91 

selection    of    267 

"        time  of   appearance  of .  .    83 
why    mating    outside.  .  .    91 

"        why    so    many 85 

Drory  experiment  on   laying.  ...    63 

Drumming  b^es    311 

Dubini   on  cleansing  the  an- 
tennae         24 


Dubini     on   commercial   uses   of 

propolis    114 

on    food   of   larvae 72 

on  the  braula  coeca 506 

on    the   Caucasian   bee..  299 
on  the  scales  of  wax.  .  .    94 

Dummies 171,  172 

Dzierzon,  discovery  of  partheno- 
genesis     58,   60 

"  hive      140 

"  on    cellar    wintering 

360,  366 
"          on  development  of  lar- 
vae        75 

"  on  drones    84 

"          on  fertility  of  queens.    66 
"          on   issue  of   swarms.  .549 
"          on    pollen    and    substi- 
tute       124,125,397 

"  on  refrigerating  queens   64 

"  on    robbers    375 

"  on    the    Italian    bee.  . 

294,  297,  298 

"  "      sex    of    eggs. ...    62 

"  "     spermatheca    ...    56 

••  "     wedding    flight.  .    54 


Earthen   hives    132 

Eggs,   are  they  laid  in  queen 

cells?     47 

drone  and  worker  in  dif- 
ferent   cells    62 

from     laying     workers.  ...    77 

"     how    fecundated     56 

impregnation     of 60 

"      not    better    than    larvae    to 

rear  queens 259 

"     of     the     bee-moth 491 

number  of,  laid  by  queens.-   41 
shallow    frames     hindering 
the    laying    of ..  151,  152,  153 

"     .shape  of    71 

T^ke    hives     135 

Eliot,    John     2S9 

Empty  combs  to  prevent  swarm- 
ing. .238 
removed   for  Winter. 345 

Enamel    cloth     172 

Enemies   of  bees 489 

Entrance     171 

blocks     163,166 

"  contracted   against 

robbing    377,  379 

"  enlarged  to  hive 

swarms    222 

enlarged    in    Summer  162 

guard     240 

left  open   in  Winter..  352 
open   in   the   cellar.  .  .362 

^ther    286 

Evans,    Quotations    from..  81,  82, 
83.    100,    111,    112,    120,    211, 

329 397 

Excessive   swarming    234 


566 


INDEX. 


Excluders    440,  441 

Excrements,   see  Fceces. 

Extracted   honey    ^451 

barrels  for.  .469,  512 
granulation  of... 515 
sale  of. 518,  519,  52S 

Extracting    463 

advantages   of .. .  .  454,  455 

conclusions     on.  .......  471 

from   brood    combs.. ..466 

half    stories    for 458 

how   to    proceed 463 

implements    for..  463,  465 

lessens  the  work 457 

prevents    swarming.  .  .457 

Extractor     453,  454,  469 

reversible    409  | 

Eyes  of  bees 3,  4  j 

comparison    of 


Facets  of  the    eye 4 

why  so  many 5 

Famine,   desertion   by 212,  372 

Fear  of  stings 200 

Fecundation      delayed,      its      re- 
sults     60,   61 

of   flowers     by     bees 

126,  127 

of    the    queen 53 

Feeble  colonies,   feeding 330 

uniting     348 

unprofitable     .429,430 

Fecundity    of    the    queen 41 

Feeders     332,  333 

Feeding   bees    329 

larvae    compared    with 
mammal   feeding.  ...    28 

in    the    Fall 331 

in   Spring    330 

"  loaf  sugar 335 

not  to  be  encouraged .336 

"  Scholz    candy 335 

stimulative     330 

sugar    candy     334 

syrup     335 

swarms    229 

Fences      439 

Fermentation  of   honey 517 

Fertility  of  the  queen,   see 

Fecundity 41 

Fertilization,    see    Impregnation. 

Field.    Eugene     114 

Fighting   of  queens 52 

Flammarion      13 

Flight  during  Winter 356,  366 

Flight  of  bees,  range  of 421 

speed   of    26 

Floating    apiaries     322 

Flour    given    to    bees 126 

Flowers,    bees    not    injurious     to 

127-128,    543 

list  of   honey 408 

FcEces  of  bees,  discharge  of  the.    29 
"     discharged  in  the  hive....  343 

"     unhealthy    472 

"     of   the   queen 18 

-*•     of  young  bees 71 


Food,  bees'    116 

"      for  wintering 343,  344 

how    much   for  Winter.  .  .  .342 
its  effect  on  queen  larvae.  .    47 

on    worker   larvae 77 

best    to    ship    queens 323 

Forcing  box    310 

Foster    

open  side  sections.  .  .  .450,  451 
shipping    directions.  .  .510,  511 

Foul-brood 473 

care  and  perseverance 

needed      484 

detected    in    Spring... 476 

"  description     of 475 

"  Dupont     experiments.. 475 

"  from    infected   queens. 485 

"  fumigating    .  .  .• 479 

"  method    of   Alexander  .485 

method   of    Bertrand.  .479 

"      of     Cheshire.  .  .  .481 

"      of    McEvoy 482 

"      of    Muth    477 

Foundation,  see  Comb  foundation. 
Frame  of  the  bodies  of  insects.  .      3 
Frames.142,  147,  150,  151,  158,  164 
"     comparison    of  divers   sizes 

150,  151,  153 

distance    between     157 

Danzenbaker      151 

"     divisible 272,273 

first    attempts   at   movable.  142 
groove    for    foundation.  ...  159 

•'      Hoffman     149,  151 

•'      Langstroth     149 

number    per    hive 154 

perpendicular  to  the   en- 
trance      160 

•      Quinby    151,  158 

dimensions    of    ....  164 
"      regularity    of    the    outside 

measure   of    158,  159 

removing    from    the    hives. 202 

space   around    142 

spacing   wire   for 170 

"     success   with  every  kind  of 

155,    156 
"      top  and  bottom  bars  of.  .  .159 

triangular   edge    157 

"     wide    448 

•'      width  of   the  too   bar 159 

France,  N.  E.,  on  foul-brood 

482,   483 
on    legal     rights.  544 

Fruits    and   bees 19,   510 

blooms  benefited  b:'   bees 

126,    127 

"      damaged  by  birds 542 

juices  of,  injurious  to  bees 

344,   543 

Fumigations   against    foul-brood  .479 

moths   498.   499 

to   tame   bees.  193.    194 


Gelieu  vertical,  divisible  hive.  .  .136 
German   hive,    inferiority   of .  .  .  . 
145,   149,   152 


INDEX. 


567 


Gingerbread      527,   528 

Girard  on   honey 116 

"       on   the   breathing  organs.    33 

glands    16 

"  "  nervous    system.  .    29 

"  smell    organs    ...    13 

sounds   produced 

by  bees. 33-34 

sting     35 

Giraud,  queen-rearing 279 

Glands    of    bees 15,   16,   IS 

Gloves    197 

Goldsmith,    quotation    from 188 

Gouttefangeas,    on    confinement ..  354 

Grading    honey     513 

Granulation  of  honey.  515,   518,   519 

Grapes   and   bees 540 

Gravenhorst    hive     147 

Green    on    foul-brood 475,   476 

Grimshaw's    apifuge    195 

Gubler   on    cure    for  bee-stings.  .  209 
Gundelach    on    the    necessity    of 
pollen     12  i 


Hairless   bees 375,  472 

Hairs    of    bees 3 

as  organs  of  touch     8 
their    uses    on    the 

legs.  .23.    24 

Hambaugh    on    out-apiaries 316 

roller    392 

Hamet,    his  description    of   the 

movable  frame  hive.  .136 
on    several    swarms    clus- 
tered together.  .226,   227 

Handling  bees    189 

with   the    hands.  .  .    32 

Harbison,  first  bees   in  Cal 291 

Harris    on    moths 489,   491 

Harvesting   honey    463 

Hearing  of  bees 10,   11 

"        organs,    where    located.  .    11 

Heart    of    bees 29 

Heartsease,    (persicaria)     406 

Heat   breaking   the   combs 182 

Heddon    hive     436 

method  of  transferring.  31  5 

color  of  veils 197 

"  comb    honey     437 

"  economical    pro- 

duction. .461 
"  prevention    of    after- 

swarms.  .241 
"  the    use   of    smoke..  201 

wintering    safely     .  .  348 

Hilbert   on   foul-brood 478,   479 

Fill    device     346 

Hill    feeder    332 

Hives,    African    132 

American     153 

Berlepsch     3  44 

bodies     168- 

'•        box    133 

bottom-board  of    ...165,   167 
cap    of     174 


Hives,  chaff     357,   358 

Cheshire     358 

Cowan     356 

diagram   of  our 164  ' 

"         division-board   of 171 

double-back     168 

double    wall     357 

"     'dovetailed    ....175,    176,   178 

Dzierzon    140 

earthen    132 

eke    135 

enamel  cloth  for 172 

entrance    of     171 

Gelieu    136 

Gallup     152,   155 

"        German     145 

Gravenhorst      147,    149 

hanging    frame     149 

Huber    141 

Jumbo     175 

Langstroth      143,   145 

large   may    be   reduced.  ..  156 
to  improve  the 

races.  .155 

manufacture   of    178 

material   for    177 

metal    spacer    170 

movable   comb    140 

frame     142 

numbering     176 

observing     184- 

outer    covering    of 359 

painting    175,   176 

patent    177 

preferred    by    us 163 

protection    for     350 

Quinby  closed  end  frame.  141 
suspended    frame.  151 

rabbet    for    frames 170 

Radouan    135 

ready    for    swarms 220 

requisites   of   a   complete.  137 

roof   of    239 

slanting   forward    160 

small,   cause  excessive 

swarming.  .156 
limit    the    laying..  155 

Soria     136 

spacing  wire  of 169-170 

straw     135 

straw  mat  for 173 

strip  on,  to  widen  the 

projection.  .172 

upper  story  of 174 

ventilation    of    162,   179 

Winter    cover    of 359 

packing    of. 351,   352 

shelter    of    349 

Wif^consin     148 

Hiving   swarms    .  .  .  ; 218,  219 

Hoffman    frames     150 

Holtermann,   on   moving  bees... 323 

Holy    Land    bees 299 

Honey,    adulteration    of 518 

"     as    food     525 

for    bees     .  .  .116,  343 

as   medicine    529 

"     board  discarded    160 


568 


INDEX. 


Honey  cakes 528 

••     cells,   are  they   air   tight?.  122 
*'     comb,    see   Combs. 

crop    in    California 425 

Germany     424 

this  country    ....420 

"     our    largest    460 

••      dew     118,    119,    120,    121 

as   seen   by   Knight...  120 
"      from  aphides.119,  120,  121 

"     its  looks    120 

"        "     origin  of    119 

*•      different    grades   of 508 

"      evaporating     122 

extracted    451 

"      extractor     434 

fermenting     510,   517 

"     from    clover    398-400 

divers  flowers    398 

"  hollow    trees    453 

"       "  linden     402 

granulating     515 

*'      handling    508 

"      harvesting     463 

"      house     318 

"     implements     ....463,465 

"     in   sections    432 

"     marketing    508 

"     melting    517 

poisonous     509 

production     428 

*'      sack    26,    27 

"     shipping  cases    509 

"     storing    and    evaporating.  .  122 

"      strained    452 

"      uses   of    525 

"      vinegar    528,   529 

Hornets   damaging    fruit....  19,    128 

Horse  killed   by    bees 206 

Hour  of  the  fecundation  of 

queens. .    54 

"     of    swarming     214 

House    apiary     306 

Hruschka     454 

Huber,   apiary    301 

experiments  on   comb 

building.  .104,   105 
pollen     ...  .123,    124 

"  "  propolis     110 

"  "  the  antennae 

8,   9.    10,   14 
"  "  the  memory  of 

bees. .    14 
"  "  the  sense  of 

smell.  .206 
"  "  ventilation     ....180 

"  "  virgin  queens 

50,   51 

"     hive     141 

"      imported    Melipones 300 

"     on   artificial   swarming.  ...  244 
"  bees  transporting  eggs.    47 

"  drone    reared    in    queen 

cell.  .    59 

"  fertile    workers    77 

"     how  bees  build  their 

combs     394 
"     location     301 


Huber,  on  the  impregnation  of 

queens. .55,   57,  84 
the  introduction  of 

queens.  .282 
the   talents   of   Buruens 

74,   77 

"     tribute    to     8,   9 

was  blind    8 

"     wife   of    9 

Humming    26,   33 

Hutchinson,   on    comb   building.  .    97 
"  comb  honey  pro- 

duction. .442,   451 
"  packing   comb 

honey. .511 
"  prevention  of 

after-swarms.  .242 
"  queen    rearing 

279,    280,    282 
shipping    honey.  511 
use    of    comb.  .  .221 
use     of     founda- 
tion. .396 
Hymenoptera     1 


Implements,  see  Tools. 

Importing  bees..  297,  298,   323,   324 

Impregnation   of   the  queen 53 

in   confinement.  .  .  .    55 
in  the  open  air.  .  .    5?. 

Increasing    too    fast 487 

Inhabitants   of    a   hive 2 

Insects   and  bees 506 

Introducing  queens    282 

"^rving,    quotation    from.  .  .  .289,    290 

Italian   bees    59.  293 

color     295 

description    of  .  .  .  .295 
destroy  moths  .  .  .  .499 
first   importa- 
tion in  America.  .297 
qualities   of.  .293,    2P4 
vary  even  in  Italy. 296 
Italian    cakes     528 

Jarring  combs,    anger  bees 202 

.Taws   of  bees 19 

Jefferson,    quotation    of 289 

Jelly   fed   to   larvee 71 

Johnson,  J.   E.,   on  feeding  bees. 330 

Jones,    cure  of  foul  brood 44  9 

importer    of    bees 298 

•'      on   number  of  queen  cells.    46 

Kirby  and  Spence 119 

Knives     for    uncapping.  ...  465,   468 

Labial   palpi  and  maxilla 20 

Labrum     19 

Landois  on  the  humming.  ...  26,  34 
Language  of   bees 34 


iNDElt. 


569 


Larvae  casting  the   skin 73 

"      duration    of    development..    74 
"     fed  from  the  glands  of 

workers 28 

"      how    fed    73 

"      of  queens  copiously  fed. 47,   48 

Laying   of   eggs 65 

hindered  by  shallow 

frames 152 

"      of  two  queens  in  the  same 

hive 52 

"      -workers    77 

"        "        how  to  get  rid  of .  .    80 
Leakage  of  honey ... .510,   512,   523 

Legs    of    bees 22 

"  covered  with  hairs...  23 
"  notches  of  the  first  pair..  24 
"      pollen    baskets    of    the 

posterior.  .    24 

second    pair    24 

Leidy,  dissections  of  queens.. 56,   59 

Levi    on    mating 54,    55 

Life   of   colonies,    length  of 81 

Life   of  queens,    length   of 67 

Life  of  worker,    length  of 80 

Light    in    the    cellar 363 

"     on    bees     201 

Linden      403 

Longfellow,  quotation   from 289 

Loosening    the    frames 202 

Loss  of  bees   by  heat 182 

"     the    queen     262 

"      "      sting     37 

Love  of  the  workers  for  the 

queen. .42,   324 
Lungs    of    bees     31 

MacCord   on    hive   covers 175 

McEvoy,  treatment  of  foul- 
brood.  .482,   483,   487 

McLain  statistics  from 425 

Magnetizing  bees    lOG 

Mahan,  experiments  on  drones.  .    88 
"     refrigerating 
queens.  ...    64 
imported    Italian    bees..  298 

Mailing   queens    324 

Malpighian     tubes      29 

Mandibles    of    bees 19 

Manum  on  the  control   of 

swarming 458 

Marketing,   see   Honey   marketing. 

Mats     173 

Material    for    hives 177 

Mating   of   the   queen 54 

MaxilL-e      20 

Mehring,   inventor  of   comb 

foundation 384 

stamp  for  securing 

straight  combs.  .157 

Melipones    293,    300 

Melting  honey 514,   517 

"      wax    532 

Memory  of  bees 14,  366 

Mentum 20 

Metatarsus    of    bees 24 

Mice   In    bee   hives 503 


Miller,   C.    C,   adding  supers.  ..  .444 

baits   in   sections 437 

bottom   boards    167 

cellar    wintering     .  .  .  .362 
clipping  queens'  wings .  226 

excluders     442 

fastening     foundation .  393 

feeder     333 

feeding   out    doors.... 381 
foundation    starters... 

445,  446 
introduction  of  queenrs.287 
number  of  colonies   in 

one    location.  .426 
prevention    of    swarm- 
ing. .241 

queen   cage    283 

queen    cells    46 

removing  comb  honey. 445 

robber  cloths    463 

scraping  propolis  from 

sections.  .443 

section    supers    449 

smoking  bees    .  .  .194,  195 
success      with       small 

hives. . 156 

super 449 

time     of     removal     of 
bees  from  cellar..  546 

uses   tin   tops 175 

Mills  on  painting  hives  different 

colors.  .306 

Mismanagement    of    bees 205 

Mistakes    of    beginners 553 

Mixing  bees   from  different  hives 

254,  463 

More    on   honey 525 

Moth,    see    Bee-Moth. 

Mouth   of   bees 15-19 

Movable   comb  hives 140 

frame  hives,  see  Hives, 
frame,    see    Frames. 

Moving    bees    306,320,327 

Munn   hive    112 

Muth    honey   cake .528 

"      honey   vinegar    529 

"      location     301 

foul-brood     method.  .  .477,  478 
"     on   ripening  honey... 517 


Natural    swarming    211 

"  uncertainty     of. .  .  243 

Nectar,    best    condition    to    pro- 

duce. .118 

changed   to  honey 116 

contains     more     or     less 

water.  .116 
exists    in    different   parts 

of   the    plant.  .118 

extrafloral     118 

in  deep  corollas. 121.122,400 
reabsorbed  by  plants.. 118 
storing  and  evaporating.122 
yields   of,    vary   greatly. 

117.  397,  420 
Nervous  system  in  bees 29 


570 


INDEX. 


Newman  on  uses  of  honey.  .525,  526 
Norton  on  outdoor  wintering.  .  .360 
Notch  of  the  fir.st  pair  of  legs.  .    24 

Nucleus     269,271 

for    artificial    swarming.. 251 

how    made     271,  273 

"        prepared    in    advance. . .275 

small     281 

"        strong     275 

Numbering    the     hives 176 

Nursing  glands  of  workers.  .  .15,  16 
Nurses    68,  69 

Observing    hives     184 

for    pleasure    and 

instruction.  .  185 
in    apartments.  .  .187 

Ocelli    of    bees 5 

Odor   of   bees 254,  255 

"      of   drones    53 

"     of    foul-brood     476,477 

"     of   the    moth 498 

"     of  the  poison  of  bees 38 

"      of    the    queen 283,  288 

Oettl,    golden   rule 556 

"      on    honey    yield 422,423 

"     on  the   language  of  bees.  .    34 

"     on    statistics     424 

straw   hive    136 

Oil  cloth    172 

Old  age,   signs  of,  in  bees 82 

Old  and  young  queens  living  to- 
gether         52 

Old     bee-keepers     venom-proof ..  209 

Olfactory    organs     11 

"  Girard      experi- 

ments  on . .    13 
"  lead      bees      to 

flowers.  .    13 

Opening   hives    202 

Orphan  bees   raising  queens....    47 

Otis    saw    impregnation 55 

Out-apiaries,    why     316 

conditions     required 

for..  316 

"  how   many?    317 

"  our   terms    for 317 

Outer-boxes    for    wintering 359 

Out   of   doors   wintering 34G 

Ovaries  of  a  drone-laying  queen  59 

"        of   the    queen 57 

"       of    workers     77 

Overbeck,   discovery  of  origin  of 

wax. .    99 

Overstocking     420 

opinions    on    426 


Packard  on  the  breathing  organs  32 
"        instinct    of    bees  39 

Pain  d'epices    527 

Painting    hives     176 

"     different     colors.  .306 

Paley  on  the  sting 36 

Palteau    hive    135 


Palpi   and   maxillae 20 

Parafline,    melting    point    of.... 387 

Parsons     importation     298 

Parthenogenesis      58,  50 

proven  by   Ital- 
ian bees.  .    59 
Pasteur   on   breeding   bacilli ...  .475 

on   inoculation    209 

Pasturage   for  bees 397 

Patents     177 

Perforated   zinc    89,  240,  441 

Phillips,   on   the   bee-moth 489 

on  queen-rearing    ....282 

Physiology     1 

Piping    of    the    queen 51,232 

Poison    of    the    sting 38,207 

"      sack     35 

Pollen    123 

"      baskets 24,  25 

fresh    preferred    124 

gathering,   useful  to  plants 

126,  127 

indispensable   to   bees 123 

"      substitutes      125,126 

used      when      bees      make 

combs.  .  105 

Portico     163,  353,  360 

Pound,  how  many  bees  in  one.. 326 

Press,    wax     534 

Prevention   of   afterswarms 241 

moths     in    combs. 

498,  502 

"  robbing     377 

swarming     23  4 

Pridgen,     queen-rearing 280 

Production  of  honey 428 

Propolis     110 

hard  in   Winter Ill 

how    to    clean    from    the 

hands. .112 

from  other  things 112 

on  sections    443 

soils  the  comb Ill 

uses    for    bees 111,112 

in    commerce 114 

Pulvilli      22,  23 


Queen,  age  at  fecundation 54 

"      balled     227,284 

beginning  to  lay 65 

best  conditions  to  raise.  .  . 

261,  281 

"      cages     283,284,325 

"      clipping   wings    of .  .  .  .  225,  226 
contents  of  spermatheca  of  50 
"     dejections,   licked  by  work- 
ers. .    18 

description    of    42,  48 

"     destitute  of  nursing  glands  16 
difference  in  prolificness  of  66 

does    not    govern 41 

duration  of  development  of 

48,  50 
"  "        transforma- 

tions of . .    92 


INDEX. 


571 


Queen  entering  the  wrong   hive. 

262, 263 
"      fecundity  of    .  .  .17,  41.  42,  155 

"     fed  by  the  workers 17 

"      fighting  of 52 

"      growtn   of,    delayed 260 

how  she  lays 65 

"      to    find    a 287 

"      to   cage    284 

"      importation     323,324 

impregnation   of   eggs...  55,  60 
"   the   queen   53 
"      impregnation   of   the   queen 

delayed.  .60,  61 
"      impregnation   of   the   queen 

for    life.  .    53 
"      impregnation    of   the   queen 

in  confinement.  .    55 
"      introduction       of       impreg- 
nated. .282 
"  "  "   virgin     . .  . 

286.  287 
"     knowing     the     sex     of     her 

eggs . .    62 

"     last    to     die 324 

"     laying    drones    in    worker- 
cells.  .58,   62,   64 

"     in   queen-cells    47 

"     worker  eggs   in  drone-cells  63 

lays  more  in  Spring 42 

longevity  of    67 

"      loss   of  the 43,  262 

"      lost  in   her  wedding  trip..  262 

love  of  bees  for  the 42 

"      mailing    324 

"      mating    53 

"      missing    214,  264 

"      odor    of    the 288 

"     old    67 

"     ovaries  of 56 

"  "        a    drone-laying.  .57,  58 

"     parthenogenesis    of    the.  .  .    58 
"      preference  for  worker  cells 

63,  108 

"     prisoner    in    the   hive 284 

"      reared    from    eggs 47,268 

"  "  old    larvae.  .  . 

49,  50,  260 

"     in   the   South 326 

"      rearing     44,  45,  259 

"     Alley    method     276 

"     Doolittle   method    ..278 

"      refrigerated     64 

"     size  of    49 

"      shipping     323 

by  mail    324 

"     sting  of 48 

"     traps    240 

"     unable   to   fly 214,  262 

"     virgin    50 

"     why  not  impregnated  in  the 

hive. .    91 
"     young,    confined    by    Huber  57 

Queen-cell    cups     280 

Queen-cells,    artificial     ....279,    280 

"  destroyed     50,  51 

"  for  artificial  swarm- 

ing. .251 


Queen-cells,    how    reared     15 

"      to   transfer    .  .  .268 

inserting    269 

large  number  of.46,  268 

preparing   for    268 

Queenless    colonies    destroyed    by 

moths.  .499 
"  "        do      not      kill 

their  drones. 266 

how  detected.. 265 

Queens,  several   in  a  swarm....  232 

two  in  a  hive 52 

"      in     a     swarm.  ..  .226,  227 

Quinby   closed   end  hive 141 

frames,    size    of 

151,  154,  155,  158,  164 
number    of    ....  155 
superiority   of.  ..154 
on       distances       between 

frames.  .157 

"  robbing    378 

"  shape  of  frames. 151,  153 
smoker     193 

Rabbet 167,  170 

enlargement  of  top  edge.172 

Races    of   bees 289 

Racine  on  old  combs 229 

"  swarming    235 

Radouan    hive    136 

Rapping    ; 311 

Rauchfuss,   foundation   fastener.  .302 
selling    honey    ...'..448 

Rauschenfels IX  ,    96 

Raynor,    carbolized    sheet 195 

Rearing  queens    44,  45,  259 

from  eggs    .  .  .  .268 
"  "  "       improved 

races. .267 
"      in  moderate  col- 
onies. .268 

Reaumur  on  impregnation 53 

Reid   on   the  shape   of  the    cells. Ill 

Remedies    for    foul-brood 477 

for    stings     207 

Removing    frames    202 

Reversible    hives    436 

Reversing    435 

Ringing   bells    to    stop    swarms.. 215 
Ripening    honey    artificially. 461,  517 

Robber  bees    374,  375 

acting     like    young 

bees . .    76 

Robber   cloth    464 

Robbing,   danger  of,   after  cellar 

wintering.  .366 

difficult    to    detect 374 

how    to    detect 376 

to    stop    377,378 

prevention   of    379 

promoted     by     the     bee- 
keeper. .376 

secret    378 

"       stopped   by   a   carbolized 

sheet.  .378 
"       by  exchanging  hives,  .  .  .378 


57^ 


INDEX. 


Roof  apiary    301 

Root.  A.   I.    (Novice)   chaft-hive.  .  357 
on     adultera- 
tion. .510 
■'   candy- 

malcing.  .334 
"   comb- 
building.  . 

96,  97,  98 
"  "  '■   extracting 

454 
"  "  "   feeding 

bees. .334 
"  "  "   foundation 

machines  .385 
"  "  "   hive- 

malting.  178,  179 
"  "   Italian 

bees.  295.  298 
"  "  "   long     and 

short 
frames.  153 
on  drone 
production   63 
"  "        on    shipping 

bees  by  the 
pound..  .  .  .  .325 

Root,  E.  R.,  on  foul-brood.  .481,  482 

on   frames    150 

on   Danzenbaker 

frames.  .151 
on  weight  of  bees.  .  .  .326 
Root,    L.    C,    author    of    Quinby's 

New  Bee-keeping.  .141 
"    .      uses  closed-end  frames 

141 

Royal    jelly     17,  47,  259 

Russia,    wintering    in 340,361 

Sack  for  hiving  swarms 223 

Salivary  glands    15,  16,  21 

Salt   for   bees 130,  131 

Saltpeter-rags    194 

Sartorl   &  Rauschenfels,   honev- 

cake. .528 
on    comb- 
building.  .    96 

Sashes    for    windows 318 

Saunier    experiment    on    brood.  .    75 

Savage    observing    hive 186 

Scales    of    wax 94 

Schiemenz  describes  the  stomach 

mouth.  .    28 
Schirach  discovery  of  the  origin 

of  the  queen. .    49 

Scholz    candy    324,  335 

"        material    for    hives 177 

Schonfeld  on  the  chyle 28 

Scouts    216 

"     returning    219 

Screen    318 

Scudamore  on  swarm 227,  243 

Sealed   honey   for  extracting.  ..  .461 
in    sections.  .443,  444 

Sealed    queen    cells 45,  269 

Sealing   of   comb 122 


Sectional   hives 135 

Sections    431,  432 

brood    frames    for.. 433,  448 

case    433 

"      Miller     449 

propolizing    442 

removing    444 

securing    straight    combs 

in. .439 
Selection  in  bees.  .235,  236,  261,  207 

Selling   honey    518 

bees     327 

Separators    439 

Shade    239 

Shakespeare     336 

Shaking  the  bees   like   seeds. 32,  228 

Sheds    306 

Shipping  bees    320 

to   better   pasture. 322 

honey    511,   512 

queens    323 

by   mail    324 

food    for    323 

from    Italy    ...  .32 1 

Shook-swarming    250 

Siebold,  his  opinion  of  the  "Ber- 

lepsch"    hive.  .144 
on    parthenogenesis.  .  .56,  60 

Sieve    469 

Simmins'   method   of    introducing 

queens .  .  28.' 
"  non-swarming    system. 236 

Size   of   frames 149,  153,  154 

"      of  our  hive 164 

Skeleton    of    insect 2 

Slanting    apron-board 166,  167 

Smelling  organs    11 

"  "        direct     bees     to 

flowers.  .13,  14 
Girard  experi- 
ments on. .    13 
"  "       very  acute    .  .  . 

13,  206,  288 

Smoke  for  handling  bees. 193 

helping  robbers    201 

Smokers     191,  192 

fuel  for 194 

Smoking  bee>s    193 

"  not    always   necessary. 198 

Snails  propolized   112 

Snow    350,  353 

Soria   space  hive 136 

Sounds  produced  in   flight 34 

I  Sour  honey 517 

I  Space    around    the   frames.  .  142,  164 

I       "     under   division    board 172 

j  Spaces    between    brood   stories.  ..152 

I  Spacing  wire    170 

Sparrows    and    bees 503 

I  Spermatheca     56 

Spine  of  the  second  pair  of  legs  24 
Spinola  on  the  Italian  bees. 293,  294 
Spiracles  of  the   lungs  of  bees.  .    32 

Spring    dwindling    368 

feeding     330 

Sproule  on  foul-brood 481 

Square  frames    153 


INDEX. 


573 


Stahala  on  the  language  of  bees  3-4 

Stanley    extractor    469 

Standard    Langstroth    frame....  147 

Starvation     329,  331 

Statistics    424,  425 

Sting    34,  37 

"     bees   living   without 37 

"      can   wound    after    removal.    38 
"      effects    of    the.  ..  .38,  207,  208 

"     fear   of  the 200 

"      left  in  the  wound 37 

"     of  queen    49 

"     not     easily    withdrawn    by 

the    bee. .    37 
"     remedies     for    the    wounds 

of    the.. 207 

Stomach     28 

mouth    28 

Stone    on   safe    wintering 348 

Store   cells    107 

"  bees    building    few. 

107,  108 
Stories,    defects    of    full    upper.  . 

448.  A5S 
half,  for  extracting.  ..  .458 
surplus    equalizing    in 

upper . . 463 

Straight   combs 157,  221,229,  385 

Strained  honey 453,  454 

Straw   hives    132,  177 

"      for    protection     350,352 

"      mat    173,352 

"   frame  for  making.  .  .  .  -.173 

Stupefying    bees    286 

Sturtevant     351 

Suffocation    181,  182 

Sugar   candy    334 

for  wintering    344 

"      loaf     335 

syrup    334 

Sulphur   for  moths 498,  499 

Supers    174 

for  comb  honey.  .  .  .448,  449 
"        for   extracted   honey ....  458 

Superstition     113 

Swammerdam    40,  185 

"  on    the    moth .... 

489,  492 
"  "        ovaries.  .     57 

"  tribute  to    15 

Swarming,   artificial,   see  Artificial. 

fever    237 

"  natural     211 

causes    of . . . .236 
"  "        excessive     .. .  .235 

"  "        preparations 

for.  .214 
"  "       out  of   season. 211 

"  '*        prevention    of.23i 

"  "        stimulated 

236,  237 
by 
small  hives, 

156,  457 
"  "        when    raising 

comb  honey. 

240.  241.  442 


Swarming,  with   a    virgin   queen. 

230, 232 

without    a    queen 214 

with   several   queens.. 232 

Swarms  absconding   233 

catching    the   queen   of.. 225 

comb    guides    for 221 

easily  handled    191 

feeding     229 

first    213 

hived    on    worker    comb. 

220,  221 
"on   comb-foundation 

221 

hiving     219 

"        mixing     226 

on    a    trunk 224 

primary     213 

with    a    young 

queen. .230 

sack    for    223 

secondary    230 

selecting   an    alighting 

place.. 218 
several   hived   together. . 
I  226,  227 

third    233 

transporting     328 

waiting    for    scouts 216 

I         "        weight   of    239 

with    several   queens.  ...  232 

"  "      two    queens 227 

I  Syrian    bees    46,  293,  299 

I  Syrup 331,  336 

T    Super    449 

Taming   bees    191 

Tanging    ■ 215 

Tarsus    22 

Telling    the   bees 114,  115 

Thickness    of    cells 101 

Thomson,  quotations  from.  .  403,  429 

Thorax 22 

Thorley    on    stupefying   bees.  .  .  .286 

Tidd  on   the    moth 490,495,497 

I  Tin   cans    for   feeding 332 

!  Tin   vessels   for   honey 521 

t    "   roofs     „  .  .175 

Toads     505 

Tongue    20,  21 

•         "        length    of    22,  400 

Tools    to    extract    honey... 463,   465 

to  handle  bees 

193,  197,  202,  203,  318 

"     to    transfer    bees 313 

Top  and  bottom  bars  of  frames. .159 
Townley   on   mailing   queens.  .  .  .324 

Trachea    31,  32 

Traps    89,  2-10 

for    moths    502 

Transferring    colonies     309 

Hcddon     method 

of 315 

queen    cells     269 

Transporting    bees    306,   327       ^1 

"■"■ '• "'^ 


574 


INDEX. 


Tulip    trees    7,   398 

Uncapping     467 

knives      468 

Uniting    colonies    ...254,   255,   318 
Upper  stories,  see  Supers. 

Vandervort    mill    386 

spur    393,   394 

Van  Deusen  clamp 160 

Veil     196,   197 

Ventilation     162,   179 

in    cellar     365 

in  winter 181,   350 

to    prevent    swarming.  239 

when    shipping     320 

Viallon    experiments    on    comb- 
building.  .106 

"     on    laying    workers 77 

Virgil   description  of  the   Italian 

bee. .292,  293 
"  mentions  the  bee-moth.  ..  489 
"     on    clipping    wings    of 

queens.  .  .  .225 
on   material    for    hives.... 177 

Virgin    queens    50 

introducing    286 

rivalry    of     50 

voice    of    51 

"Wagner    incident   of   swarming.  .  217 

on    age   of    comb 229 

on    egg    laying 47,   62 

on     robbing     377 

on  success    140 

on  the  Italian  bee. 296,  297 
"        patent    on    comb-founda- 
tion. .384 

"        on  sex  of  eggs 62 

"       on    translation    of 

Berlepsch.  .371 
"      Donhoff 

71,   496 
Warm    ab.sorbents    for    Winter..  351 

Warping    boards     179 

Water    for    bees 129,   370 

as  a   remedy   for  stings.  .208 

needed    in    Spring 370 

injurious  in   shipping 

bees.  .  .  .130 

Wax      93 

"   adulteration    of     387 

"  bleaching     536 

"   candles      537 

"  chemical     composition    of..    105 

"   cleaning      535 

"   extractors      533-534 

"   from    cappings     ..471,   531,   535 

"   how    produced     94 

"    many    pounds    of    honey 

to  produce.  . . .106 

"  made  by  young  bees 94 

"  melting    point    of 387 

"  not  made  of  pollen 104 

"  old  bees  can   make 95,   96 

"  pollen   necessary  to  make 

If^A,    105 


Wax  produced  by  eating 94,  95 

■   resiuues   of    535 

"   scales    94 

who   discovered   the.  ...    99 
"     "     on   the   bottom-board.  .  .    99 

"  uses    of     536 

Weigel    recommends    candy 334 

Weight    of    bees 326 

"     drones    326 

swarms    239 

Weiss,   first  manufacturer   of 

foundation  in  America.  .384 

Wide   frames   for   sections 448 

Wide  top  bars  for  brood  frames.  159 
Wildman    on    comb-building.  ...    99 

"      feeding     329 

"     the    scent    of    the 

queen. . . .288 

"      uniting     255 

Wil.sou.    Miss    301,   447,    448 

Window    screens     318 

Winds    protection    from 350 

Wings     25,   26 

"     used  in  ventilation 180 

"     of  queens    42 

of  queens,   clipping.  225,  226 

Winter  flight    355,   356,   367 

passages    345,   346 

protection     349 

Wintering   bees    340 

best  conditions  for. 360 

cellar   for    361 

chaff    hives    for.  .  .357 

clamps     for     368 

cold    repositories 

for.  .  .368 
experiment  on    .  .  .342 

food    for    344 

in-doors    360 

mis'akes    in     342 

narrowing    the 

spfice  for.  .  .  .  345 
on  full  combs.  .  .  .341 
outer  boxes   for 

359,   360 

Workers     67 

agitated  when  the  queen 

is  removed.  .  265 

balling    queens     284 

building     94,   96 

cells,  see  Cells. 

crippled      82 

discharges    of     29 

Donhoff    experiment    on.    68 
duration    of    transforma- 
tion of .  .    92 

duties    of     68 

.         "        eat    eggs     6(> 

eggs    in    drone    cells....    63 
I         "  "    to  raise   queens. 47,  259 

(         "        feeding  the  young 15 

'         •'  "  "     queen    18 

fertile    77 

how    discovered...    79 

"     use    of     77 

first    flight    of 68,  76 

functions  of    67 


INDEX. 


575 


Workers,  larvae    of 71 1  Workers  trying    to     raise    queens 

life     80  with  drone  eggs .  .  59,   80 

losing   their   queen  '         "        understand  each   other..    80 

42,   43,    262  "        ventilating     179 

love    of    for    their    queen  "        young,     build    combs .  69,  94 

42,   265,   324  "  "        feed    the    brood..    67 

newly  hatched    76    Worms,    see    Moth. 

number   of   in   a   hive...    67 

old,  work  in  the  fields..    68    ,,.   ,^     ,  ,^^ 

"        sexual     organs     not     de-  ^  i^ld,    large    460 

veloped.  .    77 
signs  of  old  age 82    Zoubareff,  uses  of  propolis .  114,   115 


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